SOCIETY 2.1 The issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)
Significance of Lycurgus and the Great Rhetra (5 Marks) 4/5
Lycurgus was revered as a god in the eyes of the Spartans, he was given godlike attributes and was relied on to be recreated in order to explain changing events or circumstances, though change was not common in Spartan society. While it is highly debatable whether this man was real, more than one man or completely fictional is not necessarily a significant factor in his importance as the way in which Lycurgus, man or myth, is utilised by the Spartans to explain changes in their society exposes much about their way of life. One such factor that this demonstrates is the fact that the Spartans would pass down history through word of mouth, which led to the unreliability and questionable validity of many sources on the society. Attributing the Great Rhetra and many other aspects of law to Lycurgus sped along the spread of its use and resulted in the prosperity of Sparta rising above many of its neighbours from this new angle on law and government provided by, in legend, a god-like man informed by a divine oracle.
SOCIETY 2.3 Government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia
Why were the two kings an important part of Spartan government in this period? (4 marks) 4/4
The dual monarchy (unity/synoecism) of the Spartan Kings is an important aspect of the Spartan government, as in most monarchy’s, particularly with their contribution to the military and religious spheres of Spartan life. In terms of military duties, as of the 6th century BC, one King would remain in Sparta and continue to rule over the Spartan people while the other was appointed the leader of the military and lead them into battle. This would therefore mean that Sparta’s monarchy was secure as, even if one King was to be killed in battle, the other would remain King and in control within Sparta, ensuring the nation’s stability. Religiously, the general population believed that the Kings were the mortal link to the gods, making them significant to the religious aspect of the Spartan peoples’ lives.
Describe the role of the ekklesia (5 marks) 5/5
The ekklesia, or general assembly, consisted of all the male citizens of Sparta over the age of 30, excluding the enslaved classes, who were rather integral to the Spartan’s way of government. The ekklesia made up the democratic sector of Sparta as they were given the ability to vote on legislation and give opinions on whether it should pass as law. Furthermore, they annually elected the five Ephors who presided over administrative and religious tasks that concerned the lives of those in the ekklesia, essentially being able to choose who was running their city. They also, when the time came, elected new members of the Gerousia, the council of elders, who acted as advisors for the Kings and were the ones to create the legislation for the ekklesia to vote on as well as presiding as judge over severe criminal cases and so the ekklesia’s vote on these members would govern their safety within the kingdom from the kings, the law and severe criminals.
How was Sparta governed? (8 marks)
Sparta was governed through a number of systems of government including a monarchy, oligarchy, aristocracy and democracy. While in Sparta the monarchy was rather different as there were two Kings who presided over the kingdom, which provided security and stability for the nation and their reign. They were involved in the military aspect of life in the way they would be in command of their troops and lead them into battle, though not both at the same time. In the religious sphere they were viewed as the intermediary between man and the gods, making them themselves highly religious figures in the minds of the Spartans.
The kings also made up the last two members of the 30-member oligarchic Gerousia of aristocratic men over the age of 60, who were consulted on many matters of the Kings’ rule and were able to put forward legislation for discussion by the ekklesia. Their function and regularity of meeting is otherwise rather unknown, however it is suspected this council would be a rather integral element of Spartan government.
These Gerousia can be likened somewhat to the five Ephors that made up the aristocratic sector, who were made up of annually elected magistrates who presided over and carried out important administrative and religious tasks and also advised and supervised the Kings to ensure they remained fit to rule and did so well. The Ephors were also able to put forward new legislation for the assembly to vote on.
The ekklesia, or general assembly of all free men over 30, were the ones to vote, by majority opinion, who these annual Ephors would be and who, when the previous would pass, the new Gerousians would be. In addition to this, they would vote on the implementation of legislation put to them by the kings, the Gerousians and the Ephors. This democratic sector of government allowed the people to have some say in how their own kingdom was to run and put their opinion forward for consideration.
The kings also made up the last two members of the 30-member oligarchic Gerousia of aristocratic men over the age of 60, who were consulted on many matters of the Kings’ rule and were able to put forward legislation for discussion by the ekklesia. Their function and regularity of meeting is otherwise rather unknown, however it is suspected this council would be a rather integral element of Spartan government.
These Gerousia can be likened somewhat to the five Ephors that made up the aristocratic sector, who were made up of annually elected magistrates who presided over and carried out important administrative and religious tasks and also advised and supervised the Kings to ensure they remained fit to rule and did so well. The Ephors were also able to put forward new legislation for the assembly to vote on.
The ekklesia, or general assembly of all free men over 30, were the ones to vote, by majority opinion, who these annual Ephors would be and who, when the previous would pass, the new Gerousians would be. In addition to this, they would vote on the implementation of legislation put to them by the kings, the Gerousians and the Ephors. This democratic sector of government allowed the people to have some say in how their own kingdom was to run and put their opinion forward for consideration.
SOCIETY 4.2 Myths and legends: Lycurgus and the Dioscuri
(NO QUESTION, A GENERAL PARAGRAPH ON THE MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF SPARTA)
The Spartans belief in myths and legends, more specifically their belief in Lycurgus and the Dioscuri, was a way in which social cohesion and values were formed and benefits may be gained, contributing to the significance of Religion in Sparta. These legends were both widely spread and accepted as a common religious belief, providing some social cohesion, strengthened particularly by the legend of Lycurgus, to whom Sparta’s social structure and laws were often attributed. Laws such as those believed to have been provided by Lycurgus from the Delphine Oracle strengthen the society by preventing anarchy and also reflect upon the values the society held. Plutarch’s account of Lycurgus demonstrates this widespread belief as he states “he has a temple and each year sacrifices are offered to him as though a god”, indicating that the people united together to worship this man and his contributions to their society. The Dioscuri were more significant in emphasising the social values of the Spartan society, most particularly the aspects of being a warrior, though their displays of expert horsemanship and skill in combat, and protecting their homeland. They may have also been prayed to, similarly to other gods, to bring peace of mind that their city was protected by the godly princes and that their young warriors would grow to be as skilled as they were. The people’s worship is evident in white marble reliefs of the twins, one of which depicts the two facing each other in a symmetrical, pleasing composition on horseback and holding spears. This highlights Sparta’s values of warrior behaviour, and they are shown nude, indicating their heroic status and association with athletics. This providence of cohesion, values and benefits by these myths indicates the impact that these beliefs had on the people and therefore contributes to the importance of religion within Sparta.
SOCIETY 4.5 Funerary customs and rituals
Explain what Spartan graves and burial practices reveal about values in Spartan society (6 Marks) (6/6)
The attitude the Spartans held to the dead differed from those used by most of Greece by way of removing superstitions from death and dead bodies in order to better prepare their boys for their futures as soldiers. This indicates the value that Spartan’s placed on battle and their acknowledgement that battle would always involve casualties the soldiers could not be afraid of in order to defeat their enemies. Additionally, Plutarch tell us that Lycurgus ensured the Spartans did not bury items with the deceased aside from a scarlet cloth and olive leaves, demonstrating they held the belief that their dead would not need to carry any material items into the afterlife which also differed from beliefs held widely around other parts of Greece. The Spartans, also by word of Lycurgus as told by Plutarch again, did not mark their graves with the name of the deceased, rather they left a blank marker unless the deceased was a man who died in war or a woman who died in sacred office/in childbirth. In these cases this demonstrates the value again placed on battle and how this is one of the most honourable ways for a man to die, and this also demonstrates the value the Spartan people place on the vital role women play in creating life, and creating the soldiers who fight for the people. Herodotus best describes mourning, particularly in regards to a king’s death, whereby one man and one woman from every household, under the pressure of a heavy fine, were to engage in ten days of formal mourning and, in the case of a king’s death, no public meetings or elections would be held. This is in order to respect the King’s divine role within the Spartan hierarchy and to allow for the public to mourn one of their fallen leaders before another replaced him. The King’s funeral was equally as significant and reverent to reflect his divinity where, as Herodotus records, a statue of the king is built and carried to his burial site where crowds of people would come to mourn and pay respects to the deceased.
SOCIETY 5.3 Writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus
How important was literacy in Sparta? (4 Marks) (3/4)
Literacy in Sparta was of minimal importance as it was used for dedications, inscriptions and few other documental or literary works, however the Spartans were not encouraged to engage in private reading or writing and this had little to do with the Spartan focus on the military. Dedications on a sacrificial meat hook and Ovoid Aryballos (egg shaped pottery) “to Helen” and other inscriptions and epigraphic evidence show that some periokoi stonemasons, the kings, ephors, commanders and some of the Gerosia were limitedly literate. In terms of women, Aristophanes mentions a Spartan poetess who was evidently not only literate but engaged in the discouraged act of private writing and reading. These acts were not encouraged as the Spartan belief was that books were the generators of alien ideals and diverse opinions, which could lead to revolts, uprisings and disconformity, which was detrimental to the upholding of eunomia in the Spartan state.