CORE 2.2 The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
Compare and contrast the usefulness of human remains found in P&H in telling us about the inhabitants of the two cities. (8 marks) (7/8 peer mark)
In both of these Campania cities there have been human remains found throughout the excavation process so far. There has been evidence in both towns to suggest that the bodies found so far are not the bodies of all the citizens that lived there. There are also suggestions that there were many escapees of the horrible event and that any bodies that are found cannot be used to make up the total population because of this, and due to the fact that some whole bodies may have been completely destroyed.
In Pompeii, the bodies are mostly preserved in the form of plaster or resin casts as the way in which the bodies were preserved under the ash left them to decay more than those of Herculaneum. The plaster casts of the bodies are useful as they provide a very detailed look at the way in which the victims died, including their exact positions, as well as what they wore at the time of death. In addition to this, the casts provide information about the person including gender, age, possible occupation, height and their status within society. The casts were later changed to resin to allow those studying them to see the bones that remained within the casts and better study them for their purposes. Besides the casts were the bones that were found which give similar information to the casts, though they provide further information about the state of the person such as diseases, how many children women had, how hard a person worked in life, level of nourishment, and the teeth in conjunction to the bones could provide information about nourishment, the person’s status and the ages of children.
Unlike in Pompeii, the bodies were mostly perfectly preserved as the ash covering the city was much deeper and so much more can be learned from the victim’s bones. Scientists who have studied and analysed the bodies of Herculaneum found all the information that those who studied the Pompeii bodies did, though they also found information on the general health and medical history of the individuals, population affinities, causes of death and their mental state of the time. The skeletons found also gave information about the day of the city’s destruction, such as disproving the theory that the inhabitants of Herculaneum managed to escape the disaster. These bodies gave an insight into the still hidden city below the modern town.
In Pompeii, the bodies are mostly preserved in the form of plaster or resin casts as the way in which the bodies were preserved under the ash left them to decay more than those of Herculaneum. The plaster casts of the bodies are useful as they provide a very detailed look at the way in which the victims died, including their exact positions, as well as what they wore at the time of death. In addition to this, the casts provide information about the person including gender, age, possible occupation, height and their status within society. The casts were later changed to resin to allow those studying them to see the bones that remained within the casts and better study them for their purposes. Besides the casts were the bones that were found which give similar information to the casts, though they provide further information about the state of the person such as diseases, how many children women had, how hard a person worked in life, level of nourishment, and the teeth in conjunction to the bones could provide information about nourishment, the person’s status and the ages of children.
Unlike in Pompeii, the bodies were mostly perfectly preserved as the ash covering the city was much deeper and so much more can be learned from the victim’s bones. Scientists who have studied and analysed the bodies of Herculaneum found all the information that those who studied the Pompeii bodies did, though they also found information on the general health and medical history of the individuals, population affinities, causes of death and their mental state of the time. The skeletons found also gave information about the day of the city’s destruction, such as disproving the theory that the inhabitants of Herculaneum managed to escape the disaster. These bodies gave an insight into the still hidden city below the modern town.
2.3b The economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations
Describe types of economic activity that took place in Pompeii and Herculaneum. In your answer use sources c and d and your own knowledge. (6 marks) (5/6)
Source C
- Evidence of production workshop. GARUM (TRADE)
Source D
- Tavern. THERMOPOLIUM (HEATED FOOD HOLDERS)
Source C
- Evidence of production workshop. GARUM (TRADE)
Source D
- Tavern. THERMOPOLIUM (HEATED FOOD HOLDERS)
Both Pompeii and Herculaneum had their own local economy and economic activities, though Pompeii had a larger economy over Herculaneum. Both cities had market places and various shops to purchase items and food at with their earned money and both had standardised weights and measures for use at the markets. Also, in both cities, Garum was produced in both cities, though from source C, it is likely that Pompeii also held the larger production scale compared to Herculaneum. It is known that garum was a popular export item as there were bottles of the fish sauce found throughout Europe, particularly Britain and France.
Within both towns, as mentioned, were many stores besides the markets which included brothels, bakeries, fullers stores and taverns, such as the one depicted in source D. It is evident this source shows a tavern thanks to the thermopolium and bench/seating areas seen in the image.
Within both towns, as mentioned, were many stores besides the markets which included brothels, bakeries, fullers stores and taverns, such as the one depicted in source D. It is evident this source shows a tavern thanks to the thermopolium and bench/seating areas seen in the image.
CORE 2.3c Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
Using Sources and your own knowledge, explain the life of women in Pompeii and Herculaneum. (8 marks) (8/8 peer mark)
The women of Ancient Rome, particularly Pompeii and Herculaneum, lived a much different and far more restrained life than the women of today, however, they did live lives of their own and they did participate in much of the world around them.
In Pompeii, women were by no means at the top of the social hierarchy, but they did have a standing that allowed for them to lead a rather decent life. For a female slave, they were rather equal with their male counterparts save for the jobs they may have been put in, while both men and women could be prostitutes, it was more common for women, they were often wet-nurses, cooks, entertainers and so forth. This was evident in the places that many of the bodies of women were found in Pompeii; brothel houses, kitchens, nurseries etc. Just as male slaves, females could be granted manumission and become a part of the ‘liberti’ class.
This freed class of citizens, male or female, could not hold political office, however it was only women who could not vote. They often worked as free citizens for their former masters as this would have been all they knew and many felt loyal to these former masters and therefore continued on in their working with them.
For those fortunate enough to have been born to a free citizen of Pompeii, they would be born into the Freeborn class of people. Much like the Liberti, these women were also unable to hold political office but this did not deter them from being involved in politics. Freeborn women often used their own money to sponsor candidates and pay for some of their campaign posters, or programmata, to assist their standings. Women were also allowed to conduct businesses, own property, construct buildings and become priestesses. One such women who both owned property and conducted her own business is Julia Felix, as was discovered via the inscription on her house that was partially private quarters, partially a bathing and shopping centre. Another example is Eumachia, who built her own building in Pompeii and inscribed it with her and her son’s name as a guildhall for fullers.
In Pompeii, women were by no means at the top of the social hierarchy, but they did have a standing that allowed for them to lead a rather decent life. For a female slave, they were rather equal with their male counterparts save for the jobs they may have been put in, while both men and women could be prostitutes, it was more common for women, they were often wet-nurses, cooks, entertainers and so forth. This was evident in the places that many of the bodies of women were found in Pompeii; brothel houses, kitchens, nurseries etc. Just as male slaves, females could be granted manumission and become a part of the ‘liberti’ class.
This freed class of citizens, male or female, could not hold political office, however it was only women who could not vote. They often worked as free citizens for their former masters as this would have been all they knew and many felt loyal to these former masters and therefore continued on in their working with them.
For those fortunate enough to have been born to a free citizen of Pompeii, they would be born into the Freeborn class of people. Much like the Liberti, these women were also unable to hold political office but this did not deter them from being involved in politics. Freeborn women often used their own money to sponsor candidates and pay for some of their campaign posters, or programmata, to assist their standings. Women were also allowed to conduct businesses, own property, construct buildings and become priestesses. One such women who both owned property and conducted her own business is Julia Felix, as was discovered via the inscription on her house that was partially private quarters, partially a bathing and shopping centre. Another example is Eumachia, who built her own building in Pompeii and inscribed it with her and her son’s name as a guildhall for fullers.
2.3h Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
Briefly outline Greek influences at Pompeii and Herculaneum. In your answer, use source A (art scene of a Greek play) and your own knowledge. (3 marks) (3/3)
Throughout both Pompeii and Herculaneum there is evidence of Greek influence in areas of art, architecture and streetscapes. In Herculaneum, the way the streets were very narrow and ran straight to divide up the town into insulae. In regards to art, the Alexander mosaic found in the House of the Faun was influenced by an earlier Greek artwork of the Greek warrior. Again with art of sorts, source A depicts actors rehearsing a play. With many of the first playwrights originating from Ancient Greece, this shows that the Romans have adopted and included plays from the Greeks into their own culture. Additionally, the way in which the large theatre was constructed with semicircular, tiered seating is the way that Greeks would construct their theatres.
CORE 3.1 Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Evaluate the contributions of TWO archaeologists to the archaeological methods used in Pompeii and/or Herculaneum. (10 Marks)
Over the course of the years there have been dozens of archaeologists, including Giuseppe Fiorelli and Vittorio Spinazzola, and historians who have greatly contributed new methods of archaeology and uncovering of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy.
Giuseppe Fiorelli worked as the director as excavations in Pompeii from 1863 to 1875 and in this time he contributed several things to the archaeological methodology used there to the labelling of structural areas of the city and the use of plaster casting. The Fiorellian method of excavation was developed by the man himself as he cleared the streets first of debris and pumice before starting at the top of the buildings and working his way to the ground level, reinforcing the walls as he did so to ensure the building stayed standing. Fiorelli’s method of excavation has allowed for many of the buildings of Pompeii to remain intact, creating a clearer picture of the past, and has saved lives of those who could have been hurt or killed by a falling wall or floors. Giuseppe Fiorelli also implemented the Region, Insulae, and Domus numbering system that allows archaeologists both then and now to identify the locations of buildings very easily on both a map and in the city itself. Pompeii is split into 9 regions, 22 insulae and then individual domus or houses. An example of this is where to find the House of the Surgeon at Region 6, Inslulae 1, Domus 10. Thirdly, Fiorelli was the first to come up with the idea to set the remains of the deceased of Pompeii in plater cast as their bodies left hollows in the compacted ash and pumice that allowed for a small hole to be drilled and plaster to fill the space left behind by the gasses of a decomposed body. Without the contributions of Giuseppe Fiorelli, there would be a lot less evidence and stable reconstructions of Pompeii for people to view and study, which would be a valuable chunk of information lost.
Vittorio Spinazzola was another archaeologist who worked in Pompeii, though his work was between 1910 and 1923. His contributions include the detailed excavations of facades of buildings and their reconstruction. His systematic approach to excavation was not unlike his predecessor Fiorelli, though rather than excavating whole blocks at a time he focused on the external excavations of individual buildings to reveal and restore and preserve the facades of buildings that told whole stories themselves that would be valuable if his work had not been completed. Much of the Via Dell’ Abbondanza (street of abundance) was revealed thanks to his team of workmen and there were several shops, houses, workshops and taverns found along this road. He was also responsible for the excavation of the House of the Gladiators. This contribution to archaeology in Pompeii allowed for, like Fiorelli’s work, the uncovering of valuable information that could have gone unnoticed and uncared about, such as the number of houses/shops/etc. that were in Pompeii, indicating the values of the people of the time, had he not worked in Pompeii.
Giuseppe Fiorelli worked as the director as excavations in Pompeii from 1863 to 1875 and in this time he contributed several things to the archaeological methodology used there to the labelling of structural areas of the city and the use of plaster casting. The Fiorellian method of excavation was developed by the man himself as he cleared the streets first of debris and pumice before starting at the top of the buildings and working his way to the ground level, reinforcing the walls as he did so to ensure the building stayed standing. Fiorelli’s method of excavation has allowed for many of the buildings of Pompeii to remain intact, creating a clearer picture of the past, and has saved lives of those who could have been hurt or killed by a falling wall or floors. Giuseppe Fiorelli also implemented the Region, Insulae, and Domus numbering system that allows archaeologists both then and now to identify the locations of buildings very easily on both a map and in the city itself. Pompeii is split into 9 regions, 22 insulae and then individual domus or houses. An example of this is where to find the House of the Surgeon at Region 6, Inslulae 1, Domus 10. Thirdly, Fiorelli was the first to come up with the idea to set the remains of the deceased of Pompeii in plater cast as their bodies left hollows in the compacted ash and pumice that allowed for a small hole to be drilled and plaster to fill the space left behind by the gasses of a decomposed body. Without the contributions of Giuseppe Fiorelli, there would be a lot less evidence and stable reconstructions of Pompeii for people to view and study, which would be a valuable chunk of information lost.
Vittorio Spinazzola was another archaeologist who worked in Pompeii, though his work was between 1910 and 1923. His contributions include the detailed excavations of facades of buildings and their reconstruction. His systematic approach to excavation was not unlike his predecessor Fiorelli, though rather than excavating whole blocks at a time he focused on the external excavations of individual buildings to reveal and restore and preserve the facades of buildings that told whole stories themselves that would be valuable if his work had not been completed. Much of the Via Dell’ Abbondanza (street of abundance) was revealed thanks to his team of workmen and there were several shops, houses, workshops and taverns found along this road. He was also responsible for the excavation of the House of the Gladiators. This contribution to archaeology in Pompeii allowed for, like Fiorelli’s work, the uncovering of valuable information that could have gone unnoticed and uncared about, such as the number of houses/shops/etc. that were in Pompeii, indicating the values of the people of the time, had he not worked in Pompeii.