3. Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past
3.1 Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860-1875)
Method:
Plaster casts:
- Injected plaster into cavities left by bodies.
- Shrink when they dry
- Sometimes air bubbles spoil cast; have to be touched up by a restorer — in part fake.
Development of systematic approaches:
- Numbering of regions, insulae and individual buildings.
- Wider systematic excavation by connecting already excavated sections in the west then moving across towards east.
- Systematic excavation of houses from top to bottom, collecting data of why roofs collapsed in order to restore them and their interiors.
Careful documentation:
- Documented work in progress a well as precise descriptions of objects found.
- Photography for recording purposes; introduced just before Fiorelli.
Awareness of Conservation:
- Left paintings in situ and removed other objects for display.
- Shored up (propped up with beams) and consolidated buildings
- Process followed by subsequent archaeologists such as Ruggero and Q Petra.
Contributions:
Plaster casts:
- Preserved previously destroyed evidence.
- Enabled the recovering of the shapes of humans, animals, furnishings, window frames and other perishable objected; practiced continued today with resin forms.
Development of Systematic Approaches:
- Systematic excavation and cataloguing instrumental to the preservation and fully appreciation of what has been uncovered; was no longer haphazard.
- Numbering system provided a uniform framework for indentifying and locating structures and is still used today.
Careful Documentation:
- Mapped the general plan of Pompeii — provided an understanding of site as a whole.
- Improved the retention of evidence and information that previous methods had overlooked or ignored because of insignificance.
Awareness of Conservation:
- Preserved for future generations evidence that might otherwise have been destroyed.
Plaster casts:
- Injected plaster into cavities left by bodies.
- Shrink when they dry
- Sometimes air bubbles spoil cast; have to be touched up by a restorer — in part fake.
Development of systematic approaches:
- Numbering of regions, insulae and individual buildings.
- Wider systematic excavation by connecting already excavated sections in the west then moving across towards east.
- Systematic excavation of houses from top to bottom, collecting data of why roofs collapsed in order to restore them and their interiors.
Careful documentation:
- Documented work in progress a well as precise descriptions of objects found.
- Photography for recording purposes; introduced just before Fiorelli.
Awareness of Conservation:
- Left paintings in situ and removed other objects for display.
- Shored up (propped up with beams) and consolidated buildings
- Process followed by subsequent archaeologists such as Ruggero and Q Petra.
Contributions:
Plaster casts:
- Preserved previously destroyed evidence.
- Enabled the recovering of the shapes of humans, animals, furnishings, window frames and other perishable objected; practiced continued today with resin forms.
Development of Systematic Approaches:
- Systematic excavation and cataloguing instrumental to the preservation and fully appreciation of what has been uncovered; was no longer haphazard.
- Numbering system provided a uniform framework for indentifying and locating structures and is still used today.
Careful Documentation:
- Mapped the general plan of Pompeii — provided an understanding of site as a whole.
- Improved the retention of evidence and information that previous methods had overlooked or ignored because of insignificance.
Awareness of Conservation:
- Preserved for future generations evidence that might otherwise have been destroyed.
August Mau (1873-1909)
- Categorised the painted wall decorations of Pompeii into four styles.
Vitorrio Spinazzola (1911-1924)
- Reconstructed the streetscapes and facades of the Via dell-Abbondanza, revealing election posters, shops and workshops.
- Altered concepts of how the streetscapes looked and provided valuable information regarding elections and economy.
- Altered concepts of how the streetscapes looked and provided valuable information regarding elections and economy.
Amedeo Maiuri (1924-1961)
Method:
Stratigraphy:
- First attempt at stratigraphic sampling in Pompeii, taken near Amphitheatre.
Restoration:
- Tried to carefully replace roofs on original structures and recompose elements such as doors and windows.
- In situ restoration of decoration, floors, ceilings etc.
- Dedicated to resting the buildings and monuments destroyed in W11.
Wise Destruction:
- Used a policy of wise destruction; sacrificed some of the destruction level to look at earlier phases of the city.
Contributions:
- Stratigraphy:
- Cleared the way for later intense stratigraphic work.
Restoration:
- Was able to preserve many aspects of the site.
- HOWEVER, criticized for rushed excavation from 1951-61 with little restoration or protection of buildings, and almost no documentation.
Wise Destruction:
- Increased knowledge of the city at other times while limiting the destruction of other important layers.
Study:
- Formed a theory suggesting the socio-economic decline of Pompeii after the 62 AD earthquake when he believed the rich left the city to merchants, dealers and lower classes.
- Now a central, albeit heavily debated, theory.
Excavations:
- Excavated and studied pre-Roman levels of buildings in the town; previously, had been little interest in this area.
Uncovered:
- The city walls around the entire perimeter of Pompeii.
- The amphitheatre and palaestra.
- Sought glorious finds that would be testament to the magnificence of Italy’s past (Fascist ideals)
- E.g. Silver treasure in House of Menander.
- Left objects in situ which led to much theft and pilfering.
Tourism:
- Appealed to mass tourism by reconstructing a ‘frozen world’ in the site.
- E.g. placing furniture and small objects (or replicas) in situ
Stratigraphy:
- First attempt at stratigraphic sampling in Pompeii, taken near Amphitheatre.
Restoration:
- Tried to carefully replace roofs on original structures and recompose elements such as doors and windows.
- In situ restoration of decoration, floors, ceilings etc.
- Dedicated to resting the buildings and monuments destroyed in W11.
Wise Destruction:
- Used a policy of wise destruction; sacrificed some of the destruction level to look at earlier phases of the city.
Contributions:
- Stratigraphy:
- Cleared the way for later intense stratigraphic work.
Restoration:
- Was able to preserve many aspects of the site.
- HOWEVER, criticized for rushed excavation from 1951-61 with little restoration or protection of buildings, and almost no documentation.
Wise Destruction:
- Increased knowledge of the city at other times while limiting the destruction of other important layers.
Study:
- Formed a theory suggesting the socio-economic decline of Pompeii after the 62 AD earthquake when he believed the rich left the city to merchants, dealers and lower classes.
- Now a central, albeit heavily debated, theory.
Excavations:
- Excavated and studied pre-Roman levels of buildings in the town; previously, had been little interest in this area.
Uncovered:
- The city walls around the entire perimeter of Pompeii.
- The amphitheatre and palaestra.
- Sought glorious finds that would be testament to the magnificence of Italy’s past (Fascist ideals)
- E.g. Silver treasure in House of Menander.
- Left objects in situ which led to much theft and pilfering.
Tourism:
- Appealed to mass tourism by reconstructing a ‘frozen world’ in the site.
- E.g. placing furniture and small objects (or replicas) in situ
3.2 Changing interpretations: Impact of new research and technologies
Sara Bisel
- Herculaneum.
- Focus on the boathouse.
- One of her earliest finds was of a mother and child who presumably died from an early pyroclastic surge.
- Calcium and zinc levels in the bones found gave general indication of the peoples’ health.
- Other studies indicated age, sex, social status and height.
- From these studies, the peoples’ diet was also discovered, which was found to entail vegetables and seafood with very little sugar and red meat.
Sara Biesel and Doctor Estelle Lazer
- Pompeii
- Used a CT scanner to view the inside of the plaster casts made by Fiorelli
- There was a hormone imbalance found in the women caused by lead poisoning, which caused obesity, hair growth and skin mutations, meaning images of women in frescoes were most likely often inaccurate.
- They upgraded the Fiorellian method of plaster casting by using translucent plaster to be able to see the remains in the casts.
- From statistically analysing the bones they were able to gain an insight into the genetic structure of the population of Pompeii.
Haraldur Sigurdson
- Narrowed down the time frame and phases of eruption.
- He did this by studying the Plinian accounts and comparing the layers of ash to that of the eruption of Mount St Helens.
Wilhelmina Jashemski
- Pompeii
- Studied the crop remains and found that there was a high level of agricultural production.
- She found that there were 184 different plant types.
- She found the most common food crops grown were olives, grapes, apples, peaches, cabbage, onions, and peas, grown in open spaces.
- 10% of Pompeii was used for cultivation of food crops
Other
A 3D laser scanner was used to create a 3D model of the Herculaneum suburban baths, which will be important for preservation and restoration of the baths.
Using 3D imaging techniques involving a photon beam and refraction, physicists are able to distinguish between the minute differences of the carbon ink and the carbonised rolls of papyri it is written on. This means that new information can be gleaned from the scrolls.
- Herculaneum.
- Focus on the boathouse.
- One of her earliest finds was of a mother and child who presumably died from an early pyroclastic surge.
- Calcium and zinc levels in the bones found gave general indication of the peoples’ health.
- Other studies indicated age, sex, social status and height.
- From these studies, the peoples’ diet was also discovered, which was found to entail vegetables and seafood with very little sugar and red meat.
Sara Biesel and Doctor Estelle Lazer
- Pompeii
- Used a CT scanner to view the inside of the plaster casts made by Fiorelli
- There was a hormone imbalance found in the women caused by lead poisoning, which caused obesity, hair growth and skin mutations, meaning images of women in frescoes were most likely often inaccurate.
- They upgraded the Fiorellian method of plaster casting by using translucent plaster to be able to see the remains in the casts.
- From statistically analysing the bones they were able to gain an insight into the genetic structure of the population of Pompeii.
Haraldur Sigurdson
- Narrowed down the time frame and phases of eruption.
- He did this by studying the Plinian accounts and comparing the layers of ash to that of the eruption of Mount St Helens.
Wilhelmina Jashemski
- Pompeii
- Studied the crop remains and found that there was a high level of agricultural production.
- She found that there were 184 different plant types.
- She found the most common food crops grown were olives, grapes, apples, peaches, cabbage, onions, and peas, grown in open spaces.
- 10% of Pompeii was used for cultivation of food crops
Other
A 3D laser scanner was used to create a 3D model of the Herculaneum suburban baths, which will be important for preservation and restoration of the baths.
Using 3D imaging techniques involving a photon beam and refraction, physicists are able to distinguish between the minute differences of the carbon ink and the carbonised rolls of papyri it is written on. This means that new information can be gleaned from the scrolls.
3.3 Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism
Conservation Reconstruction |
Italian
- Frescoes damage by application of modern mortar, paraffin wax and paraloids - Confining visitors to smaller areas to prevent further damage - Roofs constructed to protect frescoes from sunlight that fades the paint - Attempts at reconstruction of the lintels over doorways with softwood rather than hardwood lead to moulding and termites - Rusting of iron in reinforced concrete used in 20th century reconstruction caused cracks and then destruction of buildings |
International
- Pompeii Trust, Monument’s watch, Kress foundation - The well intended archaeologists of the past have contributed to the decay as a result of failed attempts at restoration - Associated press ‘chances to see Pompeii dwindling at time and decay take its toll’ - Pompeii Trust, Monument’s watch, Kress foundation - In Paris they are using 3D x-ray imaging techniques. Recent technology to help understand literature in that time (Papyri scrolls from Herculaneum) |
Tourist Impact
- Vandalising the city with carvings - Leaving trash behind - Intentional destruction of structures (columns) - Walking on the mosaics has caused them to wear down and pipes below to crack - Camera flashes and hot breath damage wall paintings - Theft of many original artefacts left in situ |
3.4 Ethical Issues: Study and Display of Human Remains
Displaying the Dead (Human remains) (Italics most relate to remains of Pompeii)
Ancestors or Specimens?
- Australian museums and university collections house ancestral remains for research purposes
- Some museums acknowledge indigenous people’s claims to ancestral remains, but are unable to hand them over due to laws, which are currently under review
Plastination and Sensationalism
- Technique of impregnating specimens with polymers for preservation originally devised for research and teaching.
- Many conflicted ideas about using/displaying human remains as it demonstrates the artistic value of the remains. However, going against its obvious sensationalism increases the potential of political controversy.
Respect for the Dead
- Often treated as objects as it is easier to deal with them
- Code put into place to ensure they are given special treatment and respect, particularly in regards to their origins when they were alive
Respect for the Living
- Museums give notice or warnings to visitors when displaying human remains to account for cultural and/or religious beliefs of the audience.
- Sensitivity of the museum staff needs to be observed.
Education and Curiosity
- It has the intention of providing education and scientific information in displaying them to allow for learning something from the remains e.g. biological entity, health, mortality and the life of people from distant times
- The curiosity of visitors can range from scientific objectivity to morbid perversity
Pain and Catharsis
- Sometimes the display of human remains involves “people who never asked to be found or displayed in such terminal distress” (Hicks, 2000)
- However, museums can be places where grief, violence, suffering and fatalities are addressed in a way that is beneficial for individuals and communities.
Pompeii and Herculaneum – Ethical Issues
Why is there opposition to the Italian government’s proposal to legislate for private ownership of antiquities?
Treasure hunters who declare their finds can keep and own them if they pay the state 5% of the objects estimated value. Many call this an indictment of theft and a looters’ charter, which would be a slap in the face to those who work in the administration of the conservation of heritage.
What hinders international cooperation on protecting antiquities?
Many countries are unable or unwilling to cooperate with the protection of many antiquities, as it would then limit their access to other resources of antiquity of the country asking for assistance. E.g. when the Italian government requested the USA block the import of artefacts and Italian heritage, they insisted that such a restriction would limit the US’ public access to Italy’s cultural past.
How respectfully are these remains at Pompeii treated?
The casts in the Naples museum are safely and sensitively displayed behind glass walls. Since the bones of the cast are unable to be seen, it is less confronting than most of the skeletons and provides a fascinating display. At Pompeii itself, many remains are left in situ and are often also encased in Perspex to prevent damage or theft by tourists. They are however often regarded as a tourist attraction, rather than remains of people.
Where are the plaster casts of human remains displayed at Pompeii?
There are many plaster casts from Pompeii, several of which remain in situ, while others are on display in the Naples Museum, alongside some Herculaneum skeletons, or in storage. Originally, however, they were displayed in the Pompeian museum, but were moved due to theft of jewellery and coins.
Outline the ethical questions in regard to human remains.
- Should bones be seen solely as artefacts that provide valuable information?
- Should our view of the human remains be a function of the age of the remains?
- Should archaeologists have the freedom to pursue knowledge and scientific enquiry without political pressures and legal restraints?
Describe the insensitive ways that human remains have been treated at Pompeii.
Skeletal remains were often destroyed or taken as souvenirs, thought unimportant in the wake of discovering more precious finds. Early Pompeian excavators had the skeletons displayed on tableaux, often with mismatched bones all to impress the wealthy and important they showed the remains to. Remains were often left in museum basements wrapped in newspaper.
Why do archaeologists “inevitably regard their predecessors as crude and insensitive”?
Archaeologists’ standards are products of their times and with each generation comes more debate over the human remains and how the display of which affects the living, particularly the American and Australian Indigenous people. This leads them to see their predecessors’ methods of display and sensitivity crude compared with the new standards.
Ancestors or Specimens?
- Australian museums and university collections house ancestral remains for research purposes
- Some museums acknowledge indigenous people’s claims to ancestral remains, but are unable to hand them over due to laws, which are currently under review
Plastination and Sensationalism
- Technique of impregnating specimens with polymers for preservation originally devised for research and teaching.
- Many conflicted ideas about using/displaying human remains as it demonstrates the artistic value of the remains. However, going against its obvious sensationalism increases the potential of political controversy.
Respect for the Dead
- Often treated as objects as it is easier to deal with them
- Code put into place to ensure they are given special treatment and respect, particularly in regards to their origins when they were alive
Respect for the Living
- Museums give notice or warnings to visitors when displaying human remains to account for cultural and/or religious beliefs of the audience.
- Sensitivity of the museum staff needs to be observed.
Education and Curiosity
- It has the intention of providing education and scientific information in displaying them to allow for learning something from the remains e.g. biological entity, health, mortality and the life of people from distant times
- The curiosity of visitors can range from scientific objectivity to morbid perversity
Pain and Catharsis
- Sometimes the display of human remains involves “people who never asked to be found or displayed in such terminal distress” (Hicks, 2000)
- However, museums can be places where grief, violence, suffering and fatalities are addressed in a way that is beneficial for individuals and communities.
Pompeii and Herculaneum – Ethical Issues
Why is there opposition to the Italian government’s proposal to legislate for private ownership of antiquities?
Treasure hunters who declare their finds can keep and own them if they pay the state 5% of the objects estimated value. Many call this an indictment of theft and a looters’ charter, which would be a slap in the face to those who work in the administration of the conservation of heritage.
What hinders international cooperation on protecting antiquities?
Many countries are unable or unwilling to cooperate with the protection of many antiquities, as it would then limit their access to other resources of antiquity of the country asking for assistance. E.g. when the Italian government requested the USA block the import of artefacts and Italian heritage, they insisted that such a restriction would limit the US’ public access to Italy’s cultural past.
How respectfully are these remains at Pompeii treated?
The casts in the Naples museum are safely and sensitively displayed behind glass walls. Since the bones of the cast are unable to be seen, it is less confronting than most of the skeletons and provides a fascinating display. At Pompeii itself, many remains are left in situ and are often also encased in Perspex to prevent damage or theft by tourists. They are however often regarded as a tourist attraction, rather than remains of people.
Where are the plaster casts of human remains displayed at Pompeii?
There are many plaster casts from Pompeii, several of which remain in situ, while others are on display in the Naples Museum, alongside some Herculaneum skeletons, or in storage. Originally, however, they were displayed in the Pompeian museum, but were moved due to theft of jewellery and coins.
Outline the ethical questions in regard to human remains.
- Should bones be seen solely as artefacts that provide valuable information?
- Should our view of the human remains be a function of the age of the remains?
- Should archaeologists have the freedom to pursue knowledge and scientific enquiry without political pressures and legal restraints?
Describe the insensitive ways that human remains have been treated at Pompeii.
Skeletal remains were often destroyed or taken as souvenirs, thought unimportant in the wake of discovering more precious finds. Early Pompeian excavators had the skeletons displayed on tableaux, often with mismatched bones all to impress the wealthy and important they showed the remains to. Remains were often left in museum basements wrapped in newspaper.
Why do archaeologists “inevitably regard their predecessors as crude and insensitive”?
Archaeologists’ standards are products of their times and with each generation comes more debate over the human remains and how the display of which affects the living, particularly the American and Australian Indigenous people. This leads them to see their predecessors’ methods of display and sensitivity crude compared with the new standards.