3. Career
3.1 Titles and Changes to His Royal Image Over Time
Royal Title
Horus (Beloved) of the two ladies Horus of Gold He of the Sedge and the Bee – Throne Name Son of Re – Personal Name |
Amenhotep IV
Kanakht Quaishuty Wernesytemipetsut Wetjeskahuemiunshema Neferkheperure-waenre Amenhotep Netjerheqawaset |
Meaning
Strong bull with lofty double plume Great of kingship in Thebes Who elevates the crown in Thebes Beautiful are the Manifestations of Re. The sole one of Re Amun is satisfied. The god who rules in Waset (Thebes) |
Royal Title
Horus (Beloved) of the two ladies Horus of Gold He of the Sedge and the Bee – Throne Name Son of Re – Personal Name |
Akhenaten
Meryaten Wernesytemakheraten Wetjesrenenaten Neferkheperure-waenre Akhenaten |
Meaning
Strong bull, beloved of the Aten Great of kingship in Akhenaten Who displays the name of the Aten Beautiful are the Manifestations of Re. The sole one of Re Servant of the Aten |
What does Akhenaten’s titles reveal about him?
The change from the focus on Re to Aten is another display of the change he made to the state religion. His titles as Amenhotep IV expressed an agenda to continue the golden age, to rise the crown, to be strong, great, satisfying the gods and so on. This then changed upon his titulary change to Akhenaten where the agenda essentially changed to being strong, for the Aten, being great, for the Aten, and just generally worship and act in the name and for the Aten.
The change from the focus on Re to Aten is another display of the change he made to the state religion. His titles as Amenhotep IV expressed an agenda to continue the golden age, to rise the crown, to be strong, great, satisfying the gods and so on. This then changed upon his titulary change to Akhenaten where the agenda essentially changed to being strong, for the Aten, being great, for the Aten, and just generally worship and act in the name and for the Aten.
3.2 Early Building Program Including East Karnak
While still known as Amenhotep IV, he initiated an ambitious building program. This included:
- Gem pa-aten (the aten is found) Largest and possibly 1st
- Renewed-Menu (Enduring in Monuments) Function unknown
- Teni-Menu (Exalted in Momuments) Decorations show royal domestic appartments
- Hewet-benben (Mansion of the benben stone) Focus on the sun cult of Heliopolis
These temples signified a departure from traditional architecture open to the sky. He also innovated the methods and styles of construction.
- Gem pa-aten (the aten is found) Largest and possibly 1st
- Renewed-Menu (Enduring in Monuments) Function unknown
- Teni-Menu (Exalted in Momuments) Decorations show royal domestic appartments
- Hewet-benben (Mansion of the benben stone) Focus on the sun cult of Heliopolis
These temples signified a departure from traditional architecture open to the sky. He also innovated the methods and styles of construction.
3.3 Transfer of Capital to Akhetaten: Political and Religious Motives
Scholars are uncertain
- Act of Religion to promote his god of choice
- Act of a Pharaoh determined to keep his political power in face of the threats from the Amun cult
- Akhenaten’s life may have been threatened
- Act of Religion to promote his god of choice
- Act of a Pharaoh determined to keep his political power in face of the threats from the Amun cult
- Akhenaten’s life may have been threatened
3.4 Akhetaten: Function and Layout of the City
The limits of the new city were marked by 14 boundary stelae carved into cliffs surrounding the site. These stelae were:
– Between 3 and 9 metres high
– Decorated with scenes of the royal family worshipping Aten
– Inscribed with formal announcements of the founding of Akhenaten and its dedication to the Aten cult
– Inscribed with various oaths made by Akhenaten such as:
- No-one would alter his decision to build a new city o He would never extend the city beyond its original boundaries
- The city was to become the new capital of Egypt where foreign representatives would be received
- The royal tombs were to be built in the eastern mountains
- He and his family were to be buried at Akhetaten even if they died elsewhere
– Between 3 and 9 metres high
– Decorated with scenes of the royal family worshipping Aten
– Inscribed with formal announcements of the founding of Akhenaten and its dedication to the Aten cult
– Inscribed with various oaths made by Akhenaten such as:
- No-one would alter his decision to build a new city o He would never extend the city beyond its original boundaries
- The city was to become the new capital of Egypt where foreign representatives would be received
- The royal tombs were to be built in the eastern mountains
- He and his family were to be buried at Akhetaten even if they died elsewhere
3.5 Religious Policy: Reforms, Nature, Importance and Impact of Aten Worship
Before Akhenaten
Thutmose I
Hatshepsut Rekhmire Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III |
- One of his titles was Horus-Re, ‘mighty bull with sharp horns’, who comes from the Aten
- An inscription on one of the obelisks she erected in Karnak Temple reads: ‘the making for -Amun] of two great obelisks of hard granite of the south, their upper side being electrum. Seen on both sides of the river, their rays flood the Two Lands when Aten dawns between them, as he rises in the heaven’s lightland’ - Recent excavations at Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Dier el-Bahari has revealed a sun alter on the topmost level dedicated to the Aten. - As vizier of Thutmose III, he emphasises his close relationship with the king: ‘I saw his person in his true form, Re, the Lord of Heaven, the Lord of Upper and Lower Egypt when he rises, the Aten when he reveals himself.’ - During his reign the symbol of the sun-disc appears for the first time with a pair of enveloping arms - Amenhotep II was also depicted on an ivory wrist ornament, wearing the sun-disk on his head - On a large scarab dating to his reign, the Aten is mentioned as the god of warfare who makes the Pharaoh mighty in his domains and brings all his subjects under the dominion of the sun-disc - Foreigners are spoken of as ‘subjects to the rule of Aten forever - There are numerous references to the Aten dating from his reign; one of the state barges was called ‘Radiance of the Aten’; one of his daughters, Baketaten, had her name compounded with Aten’s - Recent study of the iconography of the reign of Amenhotep III suggests that the king elevated the Aten to the status of a major cult - It seems that in year 30 of his reign, when he celebrated his first Sed festival, he was deified and ruled as a personification of the Aten - On a recently discovered statue, Amenhotep III is referred to as ‘the dazzling Aten’ |
During Akhenaten
Discuss the nature of Akhenaten’s religious reforms?
Polytheistic --> Monotheistic
Architecture --> Opening the roofs
Decorations --> Statues and reliefs in houses changed to the Aten (sun disk)
--> Akhenaten and the royal family
Method of communication/worship --> Personal worship was worshipping the Aten through the pharaoh or royal family
STAGE 1 --> Aten co-existing with the existing gods
STAGE 2 --> Aten becoming more prominent
STAGE 3 --> Persecution of the Amun cult and elimination of other gods
How are Pharaohs typically depicted in art?
- Usually shown wearing the nemes royal headdress
- The khat or bag headdress
- The cobra
- Crook and flail crossed across the chest
- Either seated on his throne or striding with purpose
- Often depicted with a beard
- Often shown as a Sphinx – a military symbol
How was Akhenaten depicted?
- King now represented with a long thin head with almond eyes and fleshy lips supported by an elongated neck. He had swelling breasts, broad hips, plump thighs and long, spindly legs.
- Changes were also made to the depiction of his wife and daughters
- Changes were sudden (two scenes in tomb in a vizier nearby show dramatic change)
- Further changes were made later
Polytheistic --> Monotheistic
Architecture --> Opening the roofs
Decorations --> Statues and reliefs in houses changed to the Aten (sun disk)
--> Akhenaten and the royal family
Method of communication/worship --> Personal worship was worshipping the Aten through the pharaoh or royal family
STAGE 1 --> Aten co-existing with the existing gods
STAGE 2 --> Aten becoming more prominent
STAGE 3 --> Persecution of the Amun cult and elimination of other gods
How are Pharaohs typically depicted in art?
- Usually shown wearing the nemes royal headdress
- The khat or bag headdress
- The cobra
- Crook and flail crossed across the chest
- Either seated on his throne or striding with purpose
- Often depicted with a beard
- Often shown as a Sphinx – a military symbol
How was Akhenaten depicted?
- King now represented with a long thin head with almond eyes and fleshy lips supported by an elongated neck. He had swelling breasts, broad hips, plump thighs and long, spindly legs.
- Changes were also made to the depiction of his wife and daughters
- Changes were sudden (two scenes in tomb in a vizier nearby show dramatic change)
- Further changes were made later
3.6 Artistic innovations and development: representations of the Aten, Akhenaten and the royal family; the natural world
- Amarna art was not sudden; it developed out of techniques already in use
- Artists were now free to experiment with technique, style and texture
- Akhenaten was the instructor of the royal sculptor and seems to have been the instigator of the new art style
Representations of the Aten
Initially depicted as a falcon headed god, now shows him as a globe with arms spreading to embrace the royal family (Akhenaten, Nefertiti, their children and Tiye) and offer the ankh (life) to them.
Representation of Akenaten and the Royals Family
- Akhenaten was shown as young, slim and greatly resembling his father/predecessors
- Nefertiti’s depiction now resembled that of kings, smiting their enemies
- Nefertiti worshipping the Aten without the King
- Akhenaten’s daughters were often shown
- Emotions shown on their faces
Akhenaten Goes to Extremes
- Nefertiti shown as the same scale as Akhenaten
- Depiction of emotions in the faces of the royal family
- Entire royal family shown with extreme physiques and facial features, like Akhenaten’s
- Introduction of three-dimensional representation
- Later artworks are more realistic
- Children depicted as aging, which was not used before Akhenaten
Natural world
- Akhenaten, in his Hymn to the Aten, claimed that he was ‘the king who lives by maat’
- Akhenaten’s emphasis on maat and ‘living in truth’ required more realism in how subject matter was depicted
- Examples of artwork recovered from the royal palace and other domestic areas at Akhetaten show a rich and colourful diversity of plant and animal motifs executed in a flowing and naturalistic manner not seen in works in other periods
- The Green Room of the North Palace is an example of this “The lush beauty of nature and its serendipity are nowhere better seen than in the wall paintings of the Green Room of the North Palace” Freed
- All types of animals and natural pursuits were suitable subjects
- Sculptured portraits were completed in a natural, lifelike style such as the famous bust of Nefertiti, which was produced from the workshop of the sculpture Thutmosis at Amarna
- This change in art was significant as it had never been seen before in works from other periods, having a profound impact on the people
- Artists were now free to experiment with technique, style and texture
- Akhenaten was the instructor of the royal sculptor and seems to have been the instigator of the new art style
Representations of the Aten
Initially depicted as a falcon headed god, now shows him as a globe with arms spreading to embrace the royal family (Akhenaten, Nefertiti, their children and Tiye) and offer the ankh (life) to them.
Representation of Akenaten and the Royals Family
- Akhenaten was shown as young, slim and greatly resembling his father/predecessors
- Nefertiti’s depiction now resembled that of kings, smiting their enemies
- Nefertiti worshipping the Aten without the King
- Akhenaten’s daughters were often shown
- Emotions shown on their faces
Akhenaten Goes to Extremes
- Nefertiti shown as the same scale as Akhenaten
- Depiction of emotions in the faces of the royal family
- Entire royal family shown with extreme physiques and facial features, like Akhenaten’s
- Introduction of three-dimensional representation
- Later artworks are more realistic
- Children depicted as aging, which was not used before Akhenaten
Natural world
- Akhenaten, in his Hymn to the Aten, claimed that he was ‘the king who lives by maat’
- Akhenaten’s emphasis on maat and ‘living in truth’ required more realism in how subject matter was depicted
- Examples of artwork recovered from the royal palace and other domestic areas at Akhetaten show a rich and colourful diversity of plant and animal motifs executed in a flowing and naturalistic manner not seen in works in other periods
- The Green Room of the North Palace is an example of this “The lush beauty of nature and its serendipity are nowhere better seen than in the wall paintings of the Green Room of the North Palace” Freed
- All types of animals and natural pursuits were suitable subjects
- Sculptured portraits were completed in a natural, lifelike style such as the famous bust of Nefertiti, which was produced from the workshop of the sculpture Thutmosis at Amarna
- This change in art was significant as it had never been seen before in works from other periods, having a profound impact on the people
Traditional Iconography
- Usually shown wearing the nemes royal headdress - The khat or bag headdress - The cobra - Crook and flail crossed across the chest - Either seated on his throne or striding with purpose - Often depicted with a beard - Often shown as a Sphinx – a military symbol |
Images of Amenhotep IV
- Early images come from a temple to Re-Horakhty in a temple to Amun in Karnak - Smiting his enemies - Depicted worshipping the traditional falcon god - Depicted with a sun disk on his head - Followed the standard of pharaonic representation indicating the beginning of his reign |
A Change in Royal Iconography
- King now represented with a long thin head with almond eyes and fleshy lips supported by an elongated neck. He had swelling breasts, broad hips, plump thighs and long, spindly legs.
- Changes were also made to the depiction of his wife and daughters
- Changes were sudden (two scenes in tomb in a vizier nearby show dramatic change)
- Further changes were made later
Reasons for the changes
- The French scholar Eugene Lefèbvre thought that Akhenaten was a woman masquerading as a man given his feminine features, the depiction of him in a long, clinging robe, and a statue with many feminine attributes of the king (later discovered to be Nefertiti)
- Anatomist Elliot Grafton Smith suggested that the Pharaoh suffered from a physical disorder called Fröhlich’s syndrome. Though sufferers are usually mentally retarded and sterile, which the king was neither.
- Canadian scholar Alwyn Burridge suggested Marfan’s syndrome, but that would have resulted in early death of heart weakness or blindness for his children, which was not the case.
- Genderless god descendant
- Other scholars believe it was the result of artistic changes throughout his reign.
- King now represented with a long thin head with almond eyes and fleshy lips supported by an elongated neck. He had swelling breasts, broad hips, plump thighs and long, spindly legs.
- Changes were also made to the depiction of his wife and daughters
- Changes were sudden (two scenes in tomb in a vizier nearby show dramatic change)
- Further changes were made later
Reasons for the changes
- The French scholar Eugene Lefèbvre thought that Akhenaten was a woman masquerading as a man given his feminine features, the depiction of him in a long, clinging robe, and a statue with many feminine attributes of the king (later discovered to be Nefertiti)
- Anatomist Elliot Grafton Smith suggested that the Pharaoh suffered from a physical disorder called Fröhlich’s syndrome. Though sufferers are usually mentally retarded and sterile, which the king was neither.
- Canadian scholar Alwyn Burridge suggested Marfan’s syndrome, but that would have resulted in early death of heart weakness or blindness for his children, which was not the case.
- Genderless god descendant
- Other scholars believe it was the result of artistic changes throughout his reign.
3.7 Foreign Policy: Syria-Palestine, Nubia
- The traditional view held is that Akhenaten was a pacifist (peacekeeper), an strange pharaoh who abandoned warfare, resulting in a reign that was apolitical and economic disaster
- Scholars who subscribed to this view felt that the king was too preoccupied with his religious changes to bother with foreign affairs.
Nubia
- It is clear that Akhenaten marinated traditional foreign policy in Nubia, including the construction of towns and military campaigns.
- Early in his reign, he founded a town at Sesebi, near the fourth cataract of the Nile. Although it was originally dedicated to Amun, the town was redirected to the Aten
- Another town at Kawa was named Gem pa- Aten, like the temple at east Karnak.
- In year 12 the army, under the command of the victory of Kush, Thutmose, was sent to Nubia to put down a rebellion there. This is recorded on a stela at Buhen.
Syria- Palestine
- Akhenaten has long been blamed for losing Egypt’s sphere of influence in the Syria- Palestine region.
- It is argued that Akhenaten was sensitive to Egypt’s interests and monitored the balance of power in the near east
- Evidence comes from the new interpretations of the Amarna letters (the diplomatic correspondence between the pharaoh and his new eastern neighbors found in the archives at Akhentaten), as well as the temples at East Karnak
- In the early years of his reign his armies appear to have campaigned against the apiru outlaw bands of Palestine, some of whom the king resettled in Nubia.
- Akhenaten was the first pharaoh to adopt a similar policy of resettling Nubian rebels in Palestine.
- Akhenaten is also known to have fought at least one war against the Hittities, the rapidly growing power in the region.
- Reliefs depict Egyptians besieging cities, while Akhenaten himself is shown riding in his chariot and killing prisoners.
- A.R Schulman believes that the war must have taken place within the first five years og Akhenatens reign, the period when the temples were decorated, and could have involved the retaking of cities captured by Adbi – Ashirta of Amurru.
- Rib-Addi of Byblos, who writes effectively in the Amarna letters, records this victory. His letters recorded repeated requests for Akhenaten to come to his aid against Aziru of Amurru who was taking advantages of Hittite undermining in the region to increase his own territory. Over – emphasis on the complaints of this vassal king has encouraged the view that Akhenaten neglected his empire.
- Aziru of Amurru was eventually summond to Egypt to answer the complaints and was detained for a long time. On his return, his subsequent defection to the Hittities indicates the difficulty Egypt encountered in maintaining control over the distant parts of its sphere of interests in Syria Palestine, particularly in the face of aggressive Hittites expansion.
- It is now clear that Akhenaten followed his father Amenhotep III’s policy of maintaining diplomatic ties to avoid warfare in the Near East. He married a Mitannian princess as his father had done and continued the diplomatic correspondence with Egypt’s vassals, as well as the Mitannian King Tushratta.
- His policy of limited military action containment enabled Akhenaten to maintain Egypt’s influence in Syria and the Levant at a time when expansion was not a feasible option.
Trade
- There is no evidence that trade was disrupted during this period.
- The Amarna letterns indicate that the tribute levied on vassal states, which had been continued to be paid.
- Archaeologist evidence, especially the remains of ancient shipwrecks such as the Ulu Burun wreck off the coast of southern Turkey, points t a well established trading network between Egypt and her eastern Mediterranean and Aegean neighbours.
- Deliveries of goods were accepted from Kharu (Asia), and with Kush (Nubia) as well as Libya and the Aegean. Whether these goods were diplomatic gifts, or tributes, it is clear that Egypt was maintaining economic links with its neighbours.
- Scholars who subscribed to this view felt that the king was too preoccupied with his religious changes to bother with foreign affairs.
Nubia
- It is clear that Akhenaten marinated traditional foreign policy in Nubia, including the construction of towns and military campaigns.
- Early in his reign, he founded a town at Sesebi, near the fourth cataract of the Nile. Although it was originally dedicated to Amun, the town was redirected to the Aten
- Another town at Kawa was named Gem pa- Aten, like the temple at east Karnak.
- In year 12 the army, under the command of the victory of Kush, Thutmose, was sent to Nubia to put down a rebellion there. This is recorded on a stela at Buhen.
Syria- Palestine
- Akhenaten has long been blamed for losing Egypt’s sphere of influence in the Syria- Palestine region.
- It is argued that Akhenaten was sensitive to Egypt’s interests and monitored the balance of power in the near east
- Evidence comes from the new interpretations of the Amarna letters (the diplomatic correspondence between the pharaoh and his new eastern neighbors found in the archives at Akhentaten), as well as the temples at East Karnak
- In the early years of his reign his armies appear to have campaigned against the apiru outlaw bands of Palestine, some of whom the king resettled in Nubia.
- Akhenaten was the first pharaoh to adopt a similar policy of resettling Nubian rebels in Palestine.
- Akhenaten is also known to have fought at least one war against the Hittities, the rapidly growing power in the region.
- Reliefs depict Egyptians besieging cities, while Akhenaten himself is shown riding in his chariot and killing prisoners.
- A.R Schulman believes that the war must have taken place within the first five years og Akhenatens reign, the period when the temples were decorated, and could have involved the retaking of cities captured by Adbi – Ashirta of Amurru.
- Rib-Addi of Byblos, who writes effectively in the Amarna letters, records this victory. His letters recorded repeated requests for Akhenaten to come to his aid against Aziru of Amurru who was taking advantages of Hittite undermining in the region to increase his own territory. Over – emphasis on the complaints of this vassal king has encouraged the view that Akhenaten neglected his empire.
- Aziru of Amurru was eventually summond to Egypt to answer the complaints and was detained for a long time. On his return, his subsequent defection to the Hittities indicates the difficulty Egypt encountered in maintaining control over the distant parts of its sphere of interests in Syria Palestine, particularly in the face of aggressive Hittites expansion.
- It is now clear that Akhenaten followed his father Amenhotep III’s policy of maintaining diplomatic ties to avoid warfare in the Near East. He married a Mitannian princess as his father had done and continued the diplomatic correspondence with Egypt’s vassals, as well as the Mitannian King Tushratta.
- His policy of limited military action containment enabled Akhenaten to maintain Egypt’s influence in Syria and the Levant at a time when expansion was not a feasible option.
Trade
- There is no evidence that trade was disrupted during this period.
- The Amarna letterns indicate that the tribute levied on vassal states, which had been continued to be paid.
- Archaeologist evidence, especially the remains of ancient shipwrecks such as the Ulu Burun wreck off the coast of southern Turkey, points t a well established trading network between Egypt and her eastern Mediterranean and Aegean neighbours.
- Deliveries of goods were accepted from Kharu (Asia), and with Kush (Nubia) as well as Libya and the Aegean. Whether these goods were diplomatic gifts, or tributes, it is clear that Egypt was maintaining economic links with its neighbours.
3.8 Changes to afterlife beliefs and funerary customs: royal and non-royal tombs
Akhenaten’s religious policies resulted in significant alterations to funerary customs and beliefs. Some aspects of traditional practice remained the same:
– Mummification continued to be performed
– Mummiform (human-shaped) coffins continued to be used
– Heart scarabs were still placed on the body
– The body was still placed in a stone sarcophagus
– Ushabtis were still placed in the tomb
– The tomb continued to be equipped with grave goods such as food, drink, furniture and personal belongings.
Other aspects, however, were modified or eliminated because they were incompatible with the new state cult. These key changes are summarised below.
Changes in funerary customs
- Afterlife obtained only through devotion to Akhenaten
- Osiris eliminated from funerary texts
- Heart scarabs inscribed with offering formula to the Aten
- Texts from Book of the Dead on ushabtis replaced with owner’s name and petitions to the Aten
- References to the Underworld and Amduat eliminated from funerary texts and tomb scenes
- Royal sarcophagus protected by Nefertiti instead of traditional goddesses
- Osirian judgment eliminated
- Hymn to the Aten inscribed in some tombs
- Tomb scenes limited to depictions of the royal family
- Tomb owner depicted on a small scale
- Prayers for an afterlife addressed to Akhenaten instead of Osiris
- Afterlife in the Field of Reeds replaced by one spent with Aten in the day and alone
Changes to the Afterlife Beliefs…
- Previously Egyptians had hoped for an afterlife that could have taken a variety of forms.
- The nature of Akhenaten’s monotheism meant there was only one time; the ‘here and now’ meaning there was no longer an afterlife
- Concepts of the afterlife had always believed the deceased experienced the world of the living as well as the world of the dead
- The revolutionary feature of the Amarna beliefs was that hopes for an afterlife now focused exclusively on the world of the living
- Prayers for survival in the afterlife, previously addressed to Osiris, were now prayed to Akhenaten
…and Funerary Practices
- Mummification continued to be practiced
- Heart scarabs were retained but the offering formulas were now addressed to the Aten
- Mummiform coffins and the stone sarcophagus were still used
- The damaged coffin of Akhenaten is unique in that Nefertiti replaces the depiction of the protective deities on each corner
- Shabtis were retained by the Book of the Dead exerpts were replaced by Atentist petitions
- Amarna tomb reliefs demonstrate the nobles’ sense of dependence on Akhenaten for their existence in the afterlife
- Akhenaten and the royal family dominate over the scenes from the Book of the Dead
– Mummification continued to be performed
– Mummiform (human-shaped) coffins continued to be used
– Heart scarabs were still placed on the body
– The body was still placed in a stone sarcophagus
– Ushabtis were still placed in the tomb
– The tomb continued to be equipped with grave goods such as food, drink, furniture and personal belongings.
Other aspects, however, were modified or eliminated because they were incompatible with the new state cult. These key changes are summarised below.
Changes in funerary customs
- Afterlife obtained only through devotion to Akhenaten
- Osiris eliminated from funerary texts
- Heart scarabs inscribed with offering formula to the Aten
- Texts from Book of the Dead on ushabtis replaced with owner’s name and petitions to the Aten
- References to the Underworld and Amduat eliminated from funerary texts and tomb scenes
- Royal sarcophagus protected by Nefertiti instead of traditional goddesses
- Osirian judgment eliminated
- Hymn to the Aten inscribed in some tombs
- Tomb scenes limited to depictions of the royal family
- Tomb owner depicted on a small scale
- Prayers for an afterlife addressed to Akhenaten instead of Osiris
- Afterlife in the Field of Reeds replaced by one spent with Aten in the day and alone
Changes to the Afterlife Beliefs…
- Previously Egyptians had hoped for an afterlife that could have taken a variety of forms.
- The nature of Akhenaten’s monotheism meant there was only one time; the ‘here and now’ meaning there was no longer an afterlife
- Concepts of the afterlife had always believed the deceased experienced the world of the living as well as the world of the dead
- The revolutionary feature of the Amarna beliefs was that hopes for an afterlife now focused exclusively on the world of the living
- Prayers for survival in the afterlife, previously addressed to Osiris, were now prayed to Akhenaten
…and Funerary Practices
- Mummification continued to be practiced
- Heart scarabs were retained but the offering formulas were now addressed to the Aten
- Mummiform coffins and the stone sarcophagus were still used
- The damaged coffin of Akhenaten is unique in that Nefertiti replaces the depiction of the protective deities on each corner
- Shabtis were retained by the Book of the Dead exerpts were replaced by Atentist petitions
- Amarna tomb reliefs demonstrate the nobles’ sense of dependence on Akhenaten for their existence in the afterlife
- Akhenaten and the royal family dominate over the scenes from the Book of the Dead
3.9 Role of Nefertiti and the issue of co-regency
Nefertiti was Akhenaten’s chief wife and consort for most of the Amarna period. All evidence suggests that their marriage was a happy one and that Akhenaten regarded her as his equal:
– She was always depicted with Akhenaten at state occasions and in private family scenes with their children
– She was described with great affection and respect in inscriptions e.g ‘King’s Great Wife whom he loves.’
– She was apparently considered the head of the family household e.g. the Boundary Stelae describe the children as being ‘under the authority of the queen’.
Some historians believe that Nefertiti was promoted to Queen regnant in the early years of Akhenaten’s reign as indicated by her status and privileges:
– She is shown being carried in her own state palanquin (carrying chair used by the king) on a Talatat from the Gempaaten
– She is shown smiting enemies in traditional ‘warrior pharaoh’ pose on a Talatat from Hermopolis
– She is shown wearing her own distinctive crown
– The HewetIbenben Temple at East Karnak was reserved for her own private worship
– She was permitted to officiate alone in the Hewet-benben temple in place of Akhenaten
After the move to Akhetaten, Nefertiti acquired even more religious and political power and may have ruled as Akhenaten’s coIregent in the final years of his reign. This view is based upon the following evidence:
– Nefertiti’s name was written in a double cartouche in the manner of a king
– She is shown driving her own chariot in the tomb of Panehsy
– She is shown wearing the traditional crowns and headIdresses of a king e.g the triple atef crown, the cap crown and the khat head cloth
– She is shown presenting rewards from the Window of Appearance in the tomb of Aye
– The Aten is shown presenting the ankh to both her and Akhenaten in the royal tomb at Akhetaten
– Prayers were directed to her as well as Akhenaten on stelae at Akhetaten – She is shown enthroned with Akhenaten in the tomb of Meryre II – She is possibly the figure wearing the blue war crown in the unfinished Stela of Pasi
– Inscriptions record the appearance of another ruler in year 14 with the same second name and epithet
– Her daughter Meritaten was promoted to ‘Kings Great Wife’ in year 15, suggesting Nefertiti was no longer using the titles of a queen
Historians are divided over the eventual fate of Nefertiti and several hypotheses have been put forward:
– She died in year 14 from the plague and was buried in the royal tomb at Akhetaten (Aldred)
– She outlived Akhenaten and died in year 4 of Tutankhamun’s reign (Redford)
– She fell out of favour with Akhenaten over religious or foreign policy and retired to the North Palace (Hayes, Pendlebury)
– She was abandoned by Akhenaten for not producing a son (Davies) – She ultimately rejected Akhenaten’s religious revolution and was banished for promoting a takeover by Tutankhamun (Desroches-Noblecourt)
– She ruled independently after Akhenaten’s death as Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare (Harris, Samson)
Nefertiti’s identification with Smenkhkare is particularly controversial, as historians such as Harris and Samson argue Nefertiti to be Smenkhkare, while Redford and Dodson argue against this.
– She was always depicted with Akhenaten at state occasions and in private family scenes with their children
– She was described with great affection and respect in inscriptions e.g ‘King’s Great Wife whom he loves.’
– She was apparently considered the head of the family household e.g. the Boundary Stelae describe the children as being ‘under the authority of the queen’.
Some historians believe that Nefertiti was promoted to Queen regnant in the early years of Akhenaten’s reign as indicated by her status and privileges:
– She is shown being carried in her own state palanquin (carrying chair used by the king) on a Talatat from the Gempaaten
– She is shown smiting enemies in traditional ‘warrior pharaoh’ pose on a Talatat from Hermopolis
– She is shown wearing her own distinctive crown
– The HewetIbenben Temple at East Karnak was reserved for her own private worship
– She was permitted to officiate alone in the Hewet-benben temple in place of Akhenaten
After the move to Akhetaten, Nefertiti acquired even more religious and political power and may have ruled as Akhenaten’s coIregent in the final years of his reign. This view is based upon the following evidence:
– Nefertiti’s name was written in a double cartouche in the manner of a king
– She is shown driving her own chariot in the tomb of Panehsy
– She is shown wearing the traditional crowns and headIdresses of a king e.g the triple atef crown, the cap crown and the khat head cloth
– She is shown presenting rewards from the Window of Appearance in the tomb of Aye
– The Aten is shown presenting the ankh to both her and Akhenaten in the royal tomb at Akhetaten
– Prayers were directed to her as well as Akhenaten on stelae at Akhetaten – She is shown enthroned with Akhenaten in the tomb of Meryre II – She is possibly the figure wearing the blue war crown in the unfinished Stela of Pasi
– Inscriptions record the appearance of another ruler in year 14 with the same second name and epithet
– Her daughter Meritaten was promoted to ‘Kings Great Wife’ in year 15, suggesting Nefertiti was no longer using the titles of a queen
Historians are divided over the eventual fate of Nefertiti and several hypotheses have been put forward:
– She died in year 14 from the plague and was buried in the royal tomb at Akhetaten (Aldred)
– She outlived Akhenaten and died in year 4 of Tutankhamun’s reign (Redford)
– She fell out of favour with Akhenaten over religious or foreign policy and retired to the North Palace (Hayes, Pendlebury)
– She was abandoned by Akhenaten for not producing a son (Davies) – She ultimately rejected Akhenaten’s religious revolution and was banished for promoting a takeover by Tutankhamun (Desroches-Noblecourt)
– She ruled independently after Akhenaten’s death as Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare (Harris, Samson)
Nefertiti’s identification with Smenkhkare is particularly controversial, as historians such as Harris and Samson argue Nefertiti to be Smenkhkare, while Redford and Dodson argue against this.
3.10 Role of the royal family
All evidence suggests that Akhenaten was a devoted family man and informal scenes of the royal couple, their children and other family members were a prominent feature of Amarna art. Such scenes included:
– Akhenaten and Nefertiti kissing and cuddling their children e.g the Berlin Stela
– The princesses accompanying Akhenaten and Nefertiti on official engagements such as reward ceremonies and receptions e.g the Tomb of Ay
– The family worshipping the Aten, e.g the Royal Tomb
– The princesses eating and sitting on cushions e.g fresco from the King’s House
– Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Meritaten on a chariot ride e.g tomb of Mahu
– Nefertiti’s sister Mutnodjmet supervising the princesses e.g tomb of Parennefer
– Akhenaten and Nefertiti entertaining Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, e.g tomb of Huya
– The family mourning the death of Queen Kiya, e.g the Royal Tomb
Akhenaten was only ever depicted in the company of his daughters although it is believed he also fathered two sons – Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun.
– Akhenaten and Nefertiti kissing and cuddling their children e.g the Berlin Stela
– The princesses accompanying Akhenaten and Nefertiti on official engagements such as reward ceremonies and receptions e.g the Tomb of Ay
– The family worshipping the Aten, e.g the Royal Tomb
– The princesses eating and sitting on cushions e.g fresco from the King’s House
– Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Meritaten on a chariot ride e.g tomb of Mahu
– Nefertiti’s sister Mutnodjmet supervising the princesses e.g tomb of Parennefer
– Akhenaten and Nefertiti entertaining Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, e.g tomb of Huya
– The family mourning the death of Queen Kiya, e.g the Royal Tomb
Akhenaten was only ever depicted in the company of his daughters although it is believed he also fathered two sons – Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun.