2. The Nature of Sources and Evidence
2.1 The range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains
Evidence in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Archaeological
- Organic remains - Human - Animal - Buildings - Drainage system - Artwork - Paintings - Statues - Mosaics - Frescoes - Everyday objects/tools |
Written
- Letter - Diary entry - Histories/Science (Books/ Records/Accounts) - Poetry - Philosophical texts - HISTORIANS - Pliny the Younger - Strabo - Statius - Dio Cassius |
Epigraphic
- Pottery - Graffiti - Statues - Election slogans - Tombstones - Advertisements - Coins Other - Plaster casts of bodies, animals, plants, etc. |
2.2 The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
Archaeological Evidence:
- Fleeing Pompeians took as much as they could with them.
- Early looting and later "excavation" has resulted in further loss.
- Differing impacts of the eruption affected what survived.
Written Evidence:
- Limited by the absence of any sources from the people themselves about their daily lives.
Evidence of Herculaneum:
- Limited by the partial nature of the excavations.
--> Forum has not been recovered, restricting our knowledge of political, civic and commercial life.
Primary Written Sources:
- May be biased due to a particular purpose or context.
Secondary Sources:
- Only reflect the knowledge available at time; may be limited in that they are out-dated.
- Fleeing Pompeians took as much as they could with them.
- Early looting and later "excavation" has resulted in further loss.
- Differing impacts of the eruption affected what survived.
Written Evidence:
- Limited by the absence of any sources from the people themselves about their daily lives.
Evidence of Herculaneum:
- Limited by the partial nature of the excavations.
--> Forum has not been recovered, restricting our knowledge of political, civic and commercial life.
Primary Written Sources:
- May be biased due to a particular purpose or context.
Secondary Sources:
- Only reflect the knowledge available at time; may be limited in that they are out-dated.
2.3 The evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for...
2.3A The Eruption
Writer
Pliny the Younger Strabo Statius Dio Cassius Pliny the Elder |
Dates
c.61 – c.112AD 64BC – 21AD c. 45/50 – 95AD c.155 – c.235AD 23 – 24AD |
Text
Letters Geography Silvae Roman History Natural History |
Information about Pompeii and Herculaneum
Details of the eruption Geographical setting and historical background of Pompeii The eruption, buries cities and the people The eruption and its aftermath Geographical setting of Pompeii and Herculaneum |
The Phases – Evidence = Six layers of strata, Sigurdsson, Cashdollar, and Sparks à 1982
1. Initial explosion à ash, pumice and gasses 20 km into the air.
2. Pumice falls over Pompeii
3. First pyroclastic surge spreading south and west à Covers Herculaneum in 3m of hot ash.
4. Second surge à Another 1.5m.
5. Third surge headed for Pompeii halts at the Herculaneum gate.
6. Three more successive surges bury Pompeii by 4m.
7. The final surge reaches Misenum.
Deaths
- Pugilist Pose = lying face down, faces covered by hands, limbs flexed and spines extended indicate they have been exposed to intense heat
- Estelle Laser suggests three main causes of death:
- Asphyxiation
- Thermal shock – Pugilist poses (In Herculaneum due to geographical proximity)
- Pagano, Mastrolorenzo, and Patrone
- Skulls --> black with red discolouration = (brain matter) à brains boiled and skulls exploded
- Concussion from projectiles or falling timbers (evident in breaks and fractures in bones)
Herculaneum:
- 350 bodies found in Herculaneum.
- Light pumice fall in the first few hours (Up wind, less ash)
- First surge reached over 400°C and would have instantaneously killed the inhabitants
- Subsequent surges and flows destroyed buildings and carbonised organic matter.
Pompeii:
- 1150 remains recovered/casted in Pompeii. (Great underestimate)
- 38% found in ash fall deposits in buildings
- 62% of remains were in the pyroclastic surge deposits
- Weight of pumice fall caused roofs to collapse à first cause of death
- Thick ash from pyroclastic surges --> asphyxiation (ash mixed with moisture in lungs à paste)
- Plaster casts suggest asphyxiation caused most deaths à Mouths open
1. Initial explosion à ash, pumice and gasses 20 km into the air.
2. Pumice falls over Pompeii
3. First pyroclastic surge spreading south and west à Covers Herculaneum in 3m of hot ash.
4. Second surge à Another 1.5m.
5. Third surge headed for Pompeii halts at the Herculaneum gate.
6. Three more successive surges bury Pompeii by 4m.
7. The final surge reaches Misenum.
Deaths
- Pugilist Pose = lying face down, faces covered by hands, limbs flexed and spines extended indicate they have been exposed to intense heat
- Estelle Laser suggests three main causes of death:
- Asphyxiation
- Thermal shock – Pugilist poses (In Herculaneum due to geographical proximity)
- Pagano, Mastrolorenzo, and Patrone
- Skulls --> black with red discolouration = (brain matter) à brains boiled and skulls exploded
- Concussion from projectiles or falling timbers (evident in breaks and fractures in bones)
Herculaneum:
- 350 bodies found in Herculaneum.
- Light pumice fall in the first few hours (Up wind, less ash)
- First surge reached over 400°C and would have instantaneously killed the inhabitants
- Subsequent surges and flows destroyed buildings and carbonised organic matter.
Pompeii:
- 1150 remains recovered/casted in Pompeii. (Great underestimate)
- 38% found in ash fall deposits in buildings
- 62% of remains were in the pyroclastic surge deposits
- Weight of pumice fall caused roofs to collapse à first cause of death
- Thick ash from pyroclastic surges --> asphyxiation (ash mixed with moisture in lungs à paste)
- Plaster casts suggest asphyxiation caused most deaths à Mouths open
2.3B The economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations
Evidence of Commerce
- The Macellum
- Marketplace - Three entrances - In the Forum - Fish bones found in drainage system - Fullonica Stephani - Owned by Stephanus - Had space for customers - Large washing vat (used urine and soda to remove stains) |
- Modesto’s Bakery
- Contains mills for grinding grain (flour) - Many loves of bread found carbonised in the oven - Thermopolium of Asellina - Place drinks were sold - Owned by Asellina - Stone counters with holes to hole amphorae for drinks - Name of women on one wall, - Small rooms upstairs; doubled as a brothel |
Evidence of Industry
Industry
Weights and Measures Fullers and Dyers Garum: Fish Sauce Production Bakeries |
Pompeii
- In the forum, a niche outside the Temple of Apollo a limestone table was found containing the official set of weights and measures against which market goods could be tested. - Fullery of Stephanus (private house converted to fullery) - Clothespress depicted in painting - Dyeworks found in Region I - Written documentation by Pliny the Elder - Robert I. Curtis studied the work of Aulus Umbricius Sacurus; the leading manufacturer and seller of Garum - 28 Bakeries - Paintings of bread and carbonise |
Herculaneum - An inscription in the forum by the markets shoes Herculaneum had a similar set of official weights. - Carbonised wooden clothes press found - Painting of a man carrying a wickerwork frame possibly used for drying or bleaching - Sacurus’ products found throughout Herculaneum |
Trades, Arts and Crafts
|
- House of the Chaste Lovers contained bowls of pigments, drawing instruments, preliminary sketches
- Architects names inscribed on walls - Fresco depicts the precision of carpenters - Evidence from graffiti gives evidence of: Auctioneer, baker, banker, carpenter, cushion-seller, door-keeper, dyer, engraver, farmer, furnace-stoker, grape-picker, herdsman, innkeeper, money-lender, mason, musician, ointment seller, painter, pastry-cook, porter, prostitute, scribe, shoemaker, sign-writer, stall-holder, surgeon, tanner, teacher, wagon driver or maker, weaver and wine-seller. |
2.3C Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
Freeborn
- Freeborn men and women were the social and political elite of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
- Men had full legal rights and could hold political office.
- Women could not hold formal political office, but had legal duties and would support electoral candidates.
- Women fell under the legal control of their fathers and husbands.
- Women could own properties and businesses (e.g. Julia Felix), construct buildings and tombs and hold priesthoods.
- Men had full legal rights and could hold political office.
- Women could not hold formal political office, but had legal duties and would support electoral candidates.
- Women fell under the legal control of their fathers and husbands.
- Women could own properties and businesses (e.g. Julia Felix), construct buildings and tombs and hold priesthoods.
Women
- Women of Pompeii and Herculaneum, however, had considerably more social, political and religious rights that women in other ancient societies.
- This can be seen in the evidence of their active role in politics, their ability to own land and businesses (e.g Julia Felix) and their opportunity to hold priesthoods.
- Evidence of wall paintings, inscriptions and frescoes show Herculaneum and Pompeian women actively engaged in public life.
- From inscriptions we learn that there were wealthy women in Pompeii and Herculaneum who were able to own property in their own right and manage their affairs without the supervision of male relatives.
- Evidence of prominent female individuals in Pompeii include Eumachia, who constructed a large public building in the Forum which bears her name: the Eumachia building.
- The women of Pompeii and Herculaneum could not hold political office (regardless of class), but still maintained an active political role through public declarations supporting particular candidates in programmata – it was acceptable and legitimate for women to do this.
- This can be seen in the evidence of their active role in politics, their ability to own land and businesses (e.g Julia Felix) and their opportunity to hold priesthoods.
- Evidence of wall paintings, inscriptions and frescoes show Herculaneum and Pompeian women actively engaged in public life.
- From inscriptions we learn that there were wealthy women in Pompeii and Herculaneum who were able to own property in their own right and manage their affairs without the supervision of male relatives.
- Evidence of prominent female individuals in Pompeii include Eumachia, who constructed a large public building in the Forum which bears her name: the Eumachia building.
- The women of Pompeii and Herculaneum could not hold political office (regardless of class), but still maintained an active political role through public declarations supporting particular candidates in programmata – it was acceptable and legitimate for women to do this.
Freedmen
- The freedmen were men and women who were freed from slavery.
- Some continued to work for former masters, while others became wealthy and influential members of society.
- Men were allowed to own businesses and vote in political elections, but could not hold political office.
- Could participate in some religious cults and were admitted to become an Augustalis (priest of the cult of the emperor).
- Some continued to work for former masters, while others became wealthy and influential members of society.
- Men were allowed to own businesses and vote in political elections, but could not hold political office.
- Could participate in some religious cults and were admitted to become an Augustalis (priest of the cult of the emperor).
Slaves
Slave
Household Business Country Community |
Duties
- Range of jobs and chores as evident by items such as kitchenware, loom weights, combs, etc. - Ran errands around town - Child-minding - Sexual coercion was common - Many businesses relied on slave work - Some trusted slaves acted as business managers - Some could serve as representative for their masters - Work was a critical element in slave identity - Producing olive oil and wine made up the corps of slave labour - Spent their days at strenuous labour and their nights chained up in small cells - Most gladiators were slaves and only the strongest and most fortunate lived long enough to enjoy adulation or obtain free status - Both male and female slaves were forced to work in prostitution - The town of Pompeii owned some slaves used for municipal construction and repair work |
Other Notes
- Integral elements of Pompeian houses - House-born slaves of two domestic slaves or a master and a slave were held in high regard and given special treatment - They had a lack of perminant sleeping arrangements. - Saturnalia was a holiday where the roles of slave and master were reversed - Working with or for their masters helped gain high profits and good reputation, which increased chances of manumission. - Even more numerous and important in the country - Agricultural slaves generally had a more miserable existence than their domestic and urban counterparts - There is little chance to aquire new skills or to form a bond with their master and therefore had a very slim chance of manumission - Manumission encouraged good behaviour by the promise of a better future and was given to favoured slaves who had proven their loyalty, but for most it was more of a motivator than reality. |
2.3D Local political life
Comitivm
- The peoples' assembly
- Included all adult male citizens including freedmen
- Elected magistrates and voted Honours
- Included all adult male citizens including freedmen
- Elected magistrates and voted Honours
Magistracy
- Duumviri (Two) - Senior magistrates for one year
- Aediles (Two) - Junior magistrates for one year, responsible for:
- The judicial system
- Public works
- Administration
- Municipal cults
- Games and public entertainments
- The markets
- Quinquennial duumviri - Responsible for revising the ordo decurionum every five years
- Qualifications included: male, freeborn, over 25 years of age, the required wealth, unblemished character
- Aediles (Two) - Junior magistrates for one year, responsible for:
- The judicial system
- Public works
- Administration
- Municipal cults
- Games and public entertainments
- The markets
- Quinquennial duumviri - Responsible for revising the ordo decurionum every five years
- Qualifications included: male, freeborn, over 25 years of age, the required wealth, unblemished character
Ordo Decurionum
- Made laws
- Its laws carried out by the magistrates
- Members called Decuriones
- New members admitted every five years
- Lifetime membership
- Membership varied, but usually around 100
- Its laws carried out by the magistrates
- Members called Decuriones
- New members admitted every five years
- Lifetime membership
- Membership varied, but usually around 100
Sources
- Over 2000 pieces of graffiti or inscriptions are classified as electoral notices in Pompeii. However, these sources provide little idea of date or the popularity of stated candidates or their success in office.
- Group support: “All the cloth bleachers propose Holicus Priscus for duumvir.”
- “Choose Marcus Casellius Marcellus – a good aedile, great games.”
- Voting tribes: “The Salienses propose Marcus Cerrinius.”
- Political satire: “All the little thieves ask for Vatia as aedile”
- Group support: “All the cloth bleachers propose Holicus Priscus for duumvir.”
- “Choose Marcus Casellius Marcellus – a good aedile, great games.”
- Voting tribes: “The Salienses propose Marcus Cerrinius.”
- Political satire: “All the little thieves ask for Vatia as aedile”
2.3E Everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water
supply and sanitation
Leisure Activities:
Theatres:
- Pompeian theatre was lavishly patroned and decorated seating 5000
- Herculaneum theatre estimated to seat 2000 o Seating divided by class and status as instructed in Augustus’ “Lex Julia Theatralis” (Important citizen and magistrates had their own set seats, Average citizens sat in the middle block, Women sat at the back)
- Theatres were free but tokens were necessary for entry and could be given out by patrons to their clients to ensure reputation and loyalty
- Shows were lowbrow farce to appeal to all classes, with music, sfx and animals.
Amphitheatre:
- Pompeiian theatre accommodated 11000 – 20000 people, attracting citizens from nearby towns
- Games were paid for by the magistrates and advertised in public notices.
- Included beast hunts, gladiatorial contests and athletic displays. o Gladiators were hugely popular, with their own fan clubs (‘The Thracian Celadus, the maidens’ sigh.”) These contests were staged on special occasions (honour Gods, the Emperor, Magistrate’s year in office)
- Part of Greek athletic tradition, with central open areas and pools, allowing running, discus and javelin.
- The Great Palestra in Pompeii had a large open space, a central pool, a colonnade on 3 sides and a latrine.
- The Herculaneum Palestra included a covered walkway, a spectators gallery, an open sports area surrounded by colonnades and an immense cross-shaped pool with a fountain.
Palestra:
Gladiatorial Games:
The palaestra is one of the richest sources of evidence for government orientated public entertainment. The gladiatorial games originated in the time of the Samnites and featured combats between pairs of gladiators or between gladiators and animals. In Pompeii they trained at the palaestra next to the amphitheatre in the gladiator’s barracks. A major archaeological find was the gladiatorial equipment uncovered in 1766-7 including: helmets, greaves, and weapons. Due to poor archaeological methodology in place at the time, much of the find has been lost. Evidence for the popularity of the games can be found in the form of graffiti. For example Thracian Celadus, is referred to as ‘the heart throb of the girls’, while some inscriptions tell the results of the games. Gladiatorial games were conducted in the amphitheatre and were often funded by electoral candidates as political campaigns. The restoration of the amphitheatre that took place after the earthquake of AD 62 is evidence of the social and political importance of the amphitheatre and the gladiatorial games.
Food and Dining:
Archaeological evidence has enabled modern scholars to indentify the foods that were available to the populations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Seeds and pips from foods such as dates, figs and olives have been preserved in the volcanic ash. Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts have also been found. Evidence of seafood comes from fish bones, shells of scallops, cockles, sea urchins and cuttlefish. A team at Oxford University have been investigating the remains from latrine pits and sewers at Pompeii. Artworks, including frescoes and mosaics, feature foods such as fruit, fish, poultry and game provide information about the diets of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Garum:
Pompeii was famous for its Garum, a thick, salty fish sauce. Small terracotta jars that once held garum have been found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. They have painted labels with information including the contents, manufacturer, the shipper and the recipient (evidence for commerce and trade).
Dining out in Pompeii:
Wall paintings suggest that banquets were popular in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The houses of the Wealthy had a specific dining room called the triclinium, where the host would throw parties and entertain guests with food and drink. The lack of kitchens in most Pompeian and Herculaneum homes and abundance of restaurants and dining areas indicate that the majority of the population ‘ate out’ and ready-cooked food would have been available at the many thermopolia or food stalls in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Clothing:
- Most evidence of clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum comes from artistic representations as most remnants and articles of clothing were destroyed in the eruption.
- Representations of clothing on statues and in frescoes must be treated with caution as they may not necessarily be an accurate depiction of fashion in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
- Men of rank commonly wore a knee<length belted tunic.
- Women of rank (such as Eumachia) are depicted wearing the Stola, a long sleeveless tunic usually suspended from the shoulders from a short strap.
Health:
- The main evidence for the health of the residents of Pompeii and Herculaneum comes from the remains of the humans themselves.
- Dr Estelle Lazer, an archaeologist and physical anthropologist from Sydney University, has studied the pathology of the human remains at Pompeii. Her examination of about 300 skulls concluded that the populations were generally well nourished.
- Other studies on the human remains from both Pompeii and Herculaneum reveal that Tuberculosis and Malaria were common diseases.
- Butterworth and Laurence report that the death rates from these diseases were higher in the wealthy areas where water features provided breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
Baths:
- Regular social event for people with “time for leisure”. Entry costs were low, making baths open to a wide cross<section of the population.
Pompeii:
The Stabian, Forum, Central, Suburban, Sarno and Amphitheatre baths.
Herculaneum:
- Central baths and the Suburban (overlooking the sea).
- Visits to the baths took a large number of hours (opened midday).
- Men and women attended separately, with some baths offering differing suits and street entrances, other opening at different times.
- Highly decorated, giving patrons a taste of luxury and status.
- Served as social clubs, gyms and health centres, and a common place to meet friends, political allies and business partners.
- Inside there were venues for food, exercise and libraries. Graffiti suggests parties had food and prostitutes.
- Ball and team games were played in the open-air courts.
Water Supply:
- One of the major prerequisites for any city is a regular water supply.
- The early inhabitants of Pompeii relied on water from the Sarno River, deep wells and rain collecting cisterns for their water supply.
- During the time of Augustus, the imperial aqueduct at Misenum had a branch built to supply Pompeii.
- Water from this channel flowed into the main tank near the Vesuvian gate and was siphoned off into three main pipes that fed different areas of the city and dispersed them in various tanks all over Pompeii. Fourteen of these tanks have been uncovered.
- 42 public fountains in Pompeii
- 3 fountains at Herculaneum
- These public fountains provided a continuous supply of water for the citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Sanitation:
- Pompeii was generally unhygienic with rubbish in the streets.
- Pompeii had public latrines which required a continuous flow of running water to wash away waste matter through a drainage channel.
- There was not toilet paper, only a sponge on a stick.
Theatres:
- Pompeian theatre was lavishly patroned and decorated seating 5000
- Herculaneum theatre estimated to seat 2000 o Seating divided by class and status as instructed in Augustus’ “Lex Julia Theatralis” (Important citizen and magistrates had their own set seats, Average citizens sat in the middle block, Women sat at the back)
- Theatres were free but tokens were necessary for entry and could be given out by patrons to their clients to ensure reputation and loyalty
- Shows were lowbrow farce to appeal to all classes, with music, sfx and animals.
Amphitheatre:
- Pompeiian theatre accommodated 11000 – 20000 people, attracting citizens from nearby towns
- Games were paid for by the magistrates and advertised in public notices.
- Included beast hunts, gladiatorial contests and athletic displays. o Gladiators were hugely popular, with their own fan clubs (‘The Thracian Celadus, the maidens’ sigh.”) These contests were staged on special occasions (honour Gods, the Emperor, Magistrate’s year in office)
- Part of Greek athletic tradition, with central open areas and pools, allowing running, discus and javelin.
- The Great Palestra in Pompeii had a large open space, a central pool, a colonnade on 3 sides and a latrine.
- The Herculaneum Palestra included a covered walkway, a spectators gallery, an open sports area surrounded by colonnades and an immense cross-shaped pool with a fountain.
Palestra:
Gladiatorial Games:
The palaestra is one of the richest sources of evidence for government orientated public entertainment. The gladiatorial games originated in the time of the Samnites and featured combats between pairs of gladiators or between gladiators and animals. In Pompeii they trained at the palaestra next to the amphitheatre in the gladiator’s barracks. A major archaeological find was the gladiatorial equipment uncovered in 1766-7 including: helmets, greaves, and weapons. Due to poor archaeological methodology in place at the time, much of the find has been lost. Evidence for the popularity of the games can be found in the form of graffiti. For example Thracian Celadus, is referred to as ‘the heart throb of the girls’, while some inscriptions tell the results of the games. Gladiatorial games were conducted in the amphitheatre and were often funded by electoral candidates as political campaigns. The restoration of the amphitheatre that took place after the earthquake of AD 62 is evidence of the social and political importance of the amphitheatre and the gladiatorial games.
Food and Dining:
Archaeological evidence has enabled modern scholars to indentify the foods that were available to the populations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Seeds and pips from foods such as dates, figs and olives have been preserved in the volcanic ash. Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts have also been found. Evidence of seafood comes from fish bones, shells of scallops, cockles, sea urchins and cuttlefish. A team at Oxford University have been investigating the remains from latrine pits and sewers at Pompeii. Artworks, including frescoes and mosaics, feature foods such as fruit, fish, poultry and game provide information about the diets of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Garum:
Pompeii was famous for its Garum, a thick, salty fish sauce. Small terracotta jars that once held garum have been found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. They have painted labels with information including the contents, manufacturer, the shipper and the recipient (evidence for commerce and trade).
Dining out in Pompeii:
Wall paintings suggest that banquets were popular in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The houses of the Wealthy had a specific dining room called the triclinium, where the host would throw parties and entertain guests with food and drink. The lack of kitchens in most Pompeian and Herculaneum homes and abundance of restaurants and dining areas indicate that the majority of the population ‘ate out’ and ready-cooked food would have been available at the many thermopolia or food stalls in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Clothing:
- Most evidence of clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum comes from artistic representations as most remnants and articles of clothing were destroyed in the eruption.
- Representations of clothing on statues and in frescoes must be treated with caution as they may not necessarily be an accurate depiction of fashion in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
- Men of rank commonly wore a knee<length belted tunic.
- Women of rank (such as Eumachia) are depicted wearing the Stola, a long sleeveless tunic usually suspended from the shoulders from a short strap.
Health:
- The main evidence for the health of the residents of Pompeii and Herculaneum comes from the remains of the humans themselves.
- Dr Estelle Lazer, an archaeologist and physical anthropologist from Sydney University, has studied the pathology of the human remains at Pompeii. Her examination of about 300 skulls concluded that the populations were generally well nourished.
- Other studies on the human remains from both Pompeii and Herculaneum reveal that Tuberculosis and Malaria were common diseases.
- Butterworth and Laurence report that the death rates from these diseases were higher in the wealthy areas where water features provided breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
Baths:
- Regular social event for people with “time for leisure”. Entry costs were low, making baths open to a wide cross<section of the population.
Pompeii:
The Stabian, Forum, Central, Suburban, Sarno and Amphitheatre baths.
Herculaneum:
- Central baths and the Suburban (overlooking the sea).
- Visits to the baths took a large number of hours (opened midday).
- Men and women attended separately, with some baths offering differing suits and street entrances, other opening at different times.
- Highly decorated, giving patrons a taste of luxury and status.
- Served as social clubs, gyms and health centres, and a common place to meet friends, political allies and business partners.
- Inside there were venues for food, exercise and libraries. Graffiti suggests parties had food and prostitutes.
- Ball and team games were played in the open-air courts.
Water Supply:
- One of the major prerequisites for any city is a regular water supply.
- The early inhabitants of Pompeii relied on water from the Sarno River, deep wells and rain collecting cisterns for their water supply.
- During the time of Augustus, the imperial aqueduct at Misenum had a branch built to supply Pompeii.
- Water from this channel flowed into the main tank near the Vesuvian gate and was siphoned off into three main pipes that fed different areas of the city and dispersed them in various tanks all over Pompeii. Fourteen of these tanks have been uncovered.
- 42 public fountains in Pompeii
- 3 fountains at Herculaneum
- These public fountains provided a continuous supply of water for the citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Sanitation:
- Pompeii was generally unhygienic with rubbish in the streets.
- Pompeii had public latrines which required a continuous flow of running water to wash away waste matter through a drainage channel.
- There was not toilet paper, only a sponge on a stick.
2.3F Public buildings – basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres
Basilica
Location: Pompeii. South-western area of the Forum
Description
- Most elaborate structure
- Covered portico supported by columns
- Legal and business activities took place
- Built between 120 and 78BC and measured 24m by 55m
- Inscriptions mentioning consuls who attended the Bacilica helps with dating
- Best surviving example of a Bacilica and an important example of pre-Roman architecture
How If Could Be Used As Evidence In Other Areas Of The Syllabus
- Political Life
- The Forum
- Graffiti
- Everyday life – leisure, food and dining
Temple of Vespasian (genius of Augustus)
Location: Pompeii. North of the Building of Eumachia
Description
- Alter facing the cella where statues of the deity/s being worshipped were located
- Alter depicts the sacrifice of the bull (priest, playing the flute, executioner with axe, bull being led to the execution, slaves/priest in training. Laurel trees and wreath. Symbol of imperial authority
- A public priestess, Mamia, daughter of Publis, funded the building of the temple on her own land
How If Could Be Used As Evidence In Other Areas Of The Syllabus
- Religion – the Imperial cult
- Temples
- Slaves
- Role of Women
Temple of Jupiter
Location: Pompeii. North of the Forum, west of the Macellum
Description
- Equivalent to Zeus, therefore he is one of the highest of the worshipped Deities
- Found in the north = an important position
- Worship of Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera) and Minerva (Athena (Not considered as important))
How If Could Be Used As Evidence In Other Areas Of The Syllabus
- Religion
- The Forum
- Temples
The Forum of Pompeii
- Rectangular 137m x 47m
- Surrounded by public buildings
- Where majority of political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities took place including
- Elections of magistrates
- Religious ceremonies
- Announcement of local edicts and the latest news from Rome
- Trade in goods such as grain, cloth and wool
- Regulation of weights and measures by aediles
- Markets
- Hire of lawyers and doctors
- Business conducted by patrons who were followed by their entourage of clients
- Gladiatorial games (prior to the building of the large amphitheatre)
- Accessed by staircases from the Via Marina and the Via dell’Abbondanza
- Originally a market, but after the Second Pumic War (3rd Century BC) the population and trade increased and the Forum was rebuilt
- NORTH
- Temple of Jupiter (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva)
- SOUTH
- Government buildings (Hall of Duumviri, the Curia and Hall of the Aediles
- WEST
- Basilica
- Centre = Suggestum
- Standard weights and measures
- Temple of Apollo
- Cereals market (Forum Holitorium)
- EAST
- Macellum (meat and fish market)
- Temple of Public Lares
- Temple of Vespasian
- Building of Eumachia
- Comitium
Name: The large theatre/The great theatre
Location: Pompeii
Description:
- Original theatre at Pompeii, cut into a small hillside, was built in the 2nd century BC.
- Was restored and enlarged in the time of Augustus by the duumviri (Marcus Holconius Rufus and Marcus Holconius Celer at their own expense)
- Curved auditorium space
- Could seat 5000 people
- Lower rows were used by upper class; middle rows were for ordinary people; back rows were for women; standing room at the back for the poor. This seating reflected the classes/structure of society.
- On the backdrop of the stage were images of the emperor, gods and local politicians.
- It was constructed on the greek model with semicircular, tiered seating with a capacity of up to 5000.
How this building can be used as evidence for other Syllabus dot Points:
Everyday life:
- The theatre was evidence of leisure activities for citizens
Political life:
- Theatre was divided by the hierarchy system and Augustus’ law, called the Lex Julia Theatralis of 18BC, which laid out a strict hierarchy seating order → Showed how Augustus was significant in their lives.
- The backdrop of the stage was images of the emperor, gods and local politicians. → Shows that theatre was a method of political advertisement.
Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures:
- The theatre was influenced by Greeks → as it was constructed using the greek model of a semicircular seating area
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves:
- The seating structure showed the varying classes → Lower rows were used by upper class; middle rows were for ordinary people; back row were for women; standing room at the back for the poor.
Conservation and restoration:
- Concerts were held at this theatre → Permanent seat markers were built
Name: Odeon (Small Theatre)
Location: Near the large theatre of Pompeii
Description:
- Built by duumviri C.Q.Valgus and M.Pocius in 70’s BC
- Hellenistic feature of the city
- Estimated to hold up to 1300 people
- Used for musical recitals, displays of oratory, literary readings and possibly meetings of various kinds.
How this building can be used as evidence for other Syllabus dot Points:
- 2.3.e everyday life: The small theatre is an example of leisure activities and entertainment for the citizens
- 2.3.g influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: Greek influence on the style of the building as it was a Hellenistic feature of the city.
Name: Palaestra
Location: Pompeii
Description:
- Dates to the reign of Augustus
- Used as an exercise ground for the military and youth organisations
- Open-air arena
- 141 by 107 metres
- Surrounded by colonnades on three sides and shaded by plane trees
- In the centre was a swimming pool
How This Building Can Be Used As Evidence For Other Syllabus Dot Points:
- Everyday life: leisure activities - being used as an exercise facility it was a hobby for people
- Social structure - mostly only used for military and youth groups
- Public Buildings: palestra - was a building used by the public
- Greek Influence: architecture – the seating is greek influenced
Name: The Amphitheatre.
Location: Pompeii
Description:
- Amphitheatre or spectacular.
- Oldest amphitheatre in the Roman world.
- Elliptical shape.
- 335 metres by 104 metres.
- Could seat around 20,000 spectators.
- Numbered seats.
- Local dignitaries sat at the front.
- Had canopies.
- Held beast hunts, gladiatorial contests and athletic displays.
How can this building be used as evidence for other syllabus dot points?
- Everyday Life - Inscriptions record the duumviri completing sectors of seating.
- Everyday Life - How neighbouring cities would visit Pompeii to speculate the area.
- Social Structure - Dignitaries sat at the front
- Gladiators are connected to the god Saturn who is thought to delight in human sacrifice. (Religion, Gladiators).
- Games were paid by magistrates (Politics).
Location: Pompeii. South-western area of the Forum
Description
- Most elaborate structure
- Covered portico supported by columns
- Legal and business activities took place
- Built between 120 and 78BC and measured 24m by 55m
- Inscriptions mentioning consuls who attended the Bacilica helps with dating
- Best surviving example of a Bacilica and an important example of pre-Roman architecture
How If Could Be Used As Evidence In Other Areas Of The Syllabus
- Political Life
- The Forum
- Graffiti
- Everyday life – leisure, food and dining
Temple of Vespasian (genius of Augustus)
Location: Pompeii. North of the Building of Eumachia
Description
- Alter facing the cella where statues of the deity/s being worshipped were located
- Alter depicts the sacrifice of the bull (priest, playing the flute, executioner with axe, bull being led to the execution, slaves/priest in training. Laurel trees and wreath. Symbol of imperial authority
- A public priestess, Mamia, daughter of Publis, funded the building of the temple on her own land
How If Could Be Used As Evidence In Other Areas Of The Syllabus
- Religion – the Imperial cult
- Temples
- Slaves
- Role of Women
Temple of Jupiter
Location: Pompeii. North of the Forum, west of the Macellum
Description
- Equivalent to Zeus, therefore he is one of the highest of the worshipped Deities
- Found in the north = an important position
- Worship of Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera) and Minerva (Athena (Not considered as important))
How If Could Be Used As Evidence In Other Areas Of The Syllabus
- Religion
- The Forum
- Temples
The Forum of Pompeii
- Rectangular 137m x 47m
- Surrounded by public buildings
- Where majority of political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities took place including
- Elections of magistrates
- Religious ceremonies
- Announcement of local edicts and the latest news from Rome
- Trade in goods such as grain, cloth and wool
- Regulation of weights and measures by aediles
- Markets
- Hire of lawyers and doctors
- Business conducted by patrons who were followed by their entourage of clients
- Gladiatorial games (prior to the building of the large amphitheatre)
- Accessed by staircases from the Via Marina and the Via dell’Abbondanza
- Originally a market, but after the Second Pumic War (3rd Century BC) the population and trade increased and the Forum was rebuilt
- NORTH
- Temple of Jupiter (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva)
- SOUTH
- Government buildings (Hall of Duumviri, the Curia and Hall of the Aediles
- WEST
- Basilica
- Centre = Suggestum
- Standard weights and measures
- Temple of Apollo
- Cereals market (Forum Holitorium)
- EAST
- Macellum (meat and fish market)
- Temple of Public Lares
- Temple of Vespasian
- Building of Eumachia
- Comitium
Name: The large theatre/The great theatre
Location: Pompeii
Description:
- Original theatre at Pompeii, cut into a small hillside, was built in the 2nd century BC.
- Was restored and enlarged in the time of Augustus by the duumviri (Marcus Holconius Rufus and Marcus Holconius Celer at their own expense)
- Curved auditorium space
- Could seat 5000 people
- Lower rows were used by upper class; middle rows were for ordinary people; back rows were for women; standing room at the back for the poor. This seating reflected the classes/structure of society.
- On the backdrop of the stage were images of the emperor, gods and local politicians.
- It was constructed on the greek model with semicircular, tiered seating with a capacity of up to 5000.
How this building can be used as evidence for other Syllabus dot Points:
Everyday life:
- The theatre was evidence of leisure activities for citizens
Political life:
- Theatre was divided by the hierarchy system and Augustus’ law, called the Lex Julia Theatralis of 18BC, which laid out a strict hierarchy seating order → Showed how Augustus was significant in their lives.
- The backdrop of the stage was images of the emperor, gods and local politicians. → Shows that theatre was a method of political advertisement.
Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures:
- The theatre was influenced by Greeks → as it was constructed using the greek model of a semicircular seating area
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves:
- The seating structure showed the varying classes → Lower rows were used by upper class; middle rows were for ordinary people; back row were for women; standing room at the back for the poor.
Conservation and restoration:
- Concerts were held at this theatre → Permanent seat markers were built
Name: Odeon (Small Theatre)
Location: Near the large theatre of Pompeii
Description:
- Built by duumviri C.Q.Valgus and M.Pocius in 70’s BC
- Hellenistic feature of the city
- Estimated to hold up to 1300 people
- Used for musical recitals, displays of oratory, literary readings and possibly meetings of various kinds.
How this building can be used as evidence for other Syllabus dot Points:
- 2.3.e everyday life: The small theatre is an example of leisure activities and entertainment for the citizens
- 2.3.g influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: Greek influence on the style of the building as it was a Hellenistic feature of the city.
Name: Palaestra
Location: Pompeii
Description:
- Dates to the reign of Augustus
- Used as an exercise ground for the military and youth organisations
- Open-air arena
- 141 by 107 metres
- Surrounded by colonnades on three sides and shaded by plane trees
- In the centre was a swimming pool
How This Building Can Be Used As Evidence For Other Syllabus Dot Points:
- Everyday life: leisure activities - being used as an exercise facility it was a hobby for people
- Social structure - mostly only used for military and youth groups
- Public Buildings: palestra - was a building used by the public
- Greek Influence: architecture – the seating is greek influenced
Name: The Amphitheatre.
Location: Pompeii
Description:
- Amphitheatre or spectacular.
- Oldest amphitheatre in the Roman world.
- Elliptical shape.
- 335 metres by 104 metres.
- Could seat around 20,000 spectators.
- Numbered seats.
- Local dignitaries sat at the front.
- Had canopies.
- Held beast hunts, gladiatorial contests and athletic displays.
How can this building be used as evidence for other syllabus dot points?
- Everyday Life - Inscriptions record the duumviri completing sectors of seating.
- Everyday Life - How neighbouring cities would visit Pompeii to speculate the area.
- Social Structure - Dignitaries sat at the front
- Gladiators are connected to the god Saturn who is thought to delight in human sacrifice. (Religion, Gladiators).
- Games were paid by magistrates (Politics).
2.3G Private buildings – villas, houses, shops
(See Sub-Pages for Detail on Private Houses)
Villas
- Spaced only a few 100 metres apart
- Villas varied in scale, architectural features and luxury, and unlike the urban domus they did not look inward but were designed to take in the view over the sea or rolling countryside
Villas built for Leisure (otium)
- Often had two stories, terraces, gardens, swimming pools, thermal baths, etc.
- The Villa of the Papyri was built for leisure
- Suburban villas include the Villa of Mysteries and the Villa of Diomedes
Villa Rusticae
- Wealthy Romans and Pompeians annexed country farms and added elaborate residential quarters for the owner to stay in when visiting.
- Though the villas were luxurious, their primary focus was agricultural production
Town Houses
- Most common form of housing
- When looking at houses, many people try to label the rooms as though it were a modern western house, but most rooms were not used for a sole purpose and, as furniture was easily moved, they could be changed at any moment depending on the needs of the occupants
Exterior
- Sometimes hidden behind shops or workshops
- Few or no windows. Windows onto the street were small and barred, highlighting a concern for security.
Entry and Internal Open Space (Vestibulum and Atrium)
- Entrances were often narrow
- Rainwater was collected in the Impluvium, which included an underground cistern that could sometimes be accessed by a well head
- This pool of water helped cool the house
Reception (Tablinum)
- Tablinum usually stood across from the shallow pool directly in line with the entrance from the street
- In early Roman houses, the Tablinum was the master bedroom and when bedding was put aside, it could be used as a reception room and home office
Wings (Alae)
- These multi-purpose rooms that flanked the Tablinum and opened to the atrium
Dining Room (Triclinium)
- Consisted of three dining couches that usually sat three each and small tables for holding food.
Kitchen (Culina)
- Often difficult to identify the room as many families moved around a portable stove depending on where they were dining at the time. Some families, however, had a built in oven in one room.
Bedrooms (Cubicula)
- Bedrooms could be located anywhere in the house. Off the atrium or the peristyle, upstairs or downstairs
Toilets and Baths
- Many houses had latrines coming off the kitchens that were washed out by kitchen water overflow or running water from the lead piping from the aqueduct
- Houses also contained chamber pots that were emptied into the public latrine
Colonnaded Open Space (Peristylium)
- The Peristyle was a colonnaded, open-air garden located inside the house.
Other accommodation
- Middle class apartments
- Small. One-roomed flats for poorer people
- Two storied terraced houses with a small garden at the back were built near the Pompeian amphitheatre
- In Herculaneum a flimsy jerrybuilt house was found made from a wooden skeleton of square frames filled with stones and mortar
Shops (Tabernae)
The main commercial thoroughfare in Pompeii was the road that ran from the Forum, past the amphitheatre to the Sarnian Gate. Remains of the shops on this road can be identified by the wide opening onto the street and the long groove in the stone threshold where a wooden shutter slid back during the day. Many had a back room or mezzanine for the owner to live.
About 200 eating and drinking places have been identified in Pompeii. Some were simply fast food snack bars and are recognised by the marble-covered counter which held large doila, holding hot drinks and dishes (thermopolia). In most of these places food was taken away or eaten standing up.
Wine bars and taverns (cauponae) were scattered throughout both towns, but in Pompeii they were more densely clustered near the entrance gates and the amphitheatre. Some had a room or rooms at the back with benches for clients. In other there were couches for wealthier clients to recline on while earing or drinking. It seems that many Pompeians were heavy drinkers.
Villas
- Spaced only a few 100 metres apart
- Villas varied in scale, architectural features and luxury, and unlike the urban domus they did not look inward but were designed to take in the view over the sea or rolling countryside
Villas built for Leisure (otium)
- Often had two stories, terraces, gardens, swimming pools, thermal baths, etc.
- The Villa of the Papyri was built for leisure
- Suburban villas include the Villa of Mysteries and the Villa of Diomedes
Villa Rusticae
- Wealthy Romans and Pompeians annexed country farms and added elaborate residential quarters for the owner to stay in when visiting.
- Though the villas were luxurious, their primary focus was agricultural production
Town Houses
- Most common form of housing
- When looking at houses, many people try to label the rooms as though it were a modern western house, but most rooms were not used for a sole purpose and, as furniture was easily moved, they could be changed at any moment depending on the needs of the occupants
Exterior
- Sometimes hidden behind shops or workshops
- Few or no windows. Windows onto the street were small and barred, highlighting a concern for security.
Entry and Internal Open Space (Vestibulum and Atrium)
- Entrances were often narrow
- Rainwater was collected in the Impluvium, which included an underground cistern that could sometimes be accessed by a well head
- This pool of water helped cool the house
Reception (Tablinum)
- Tablinum usually stood across from the shallow pool directly in line with the entrance from the street
- In early Roman houses, the Tablinum was the master bedroom and when bedding was put aside, it could be used as a reception room and home office
Wings (Alae)
- These multi-purpose rooms that flanked the Tablinum and opened to the atrium
Dining Room (Triclinium)
- Consisted of three dining couches that usually sat three each and small tables for holding food.
Kitchen (Culina)
- Often difficult to identify the room as many families moved around a portable stove depending on where they were dining at the time. Some families, however, had a built in oven in one room.
Bedrooms (Cubicula)
- Bedrooms could be located anywhere in the house. Off the atrium or the peristyle, upstairs or downstairs
Toilets and Baths
- Many houses had latrines coming off the kitchens that were washed out by kitchen water overflow or running water from the lead piping from the aqueduct
- Houses also contained chamber pots that were emptied into the public latrine
Colonnaded Open Space (Peristylium)
- The Peristyle was a colonnaded, open-air garden located inside the house.
Other accommodation
- Middle class apartments
- Small. One-roomed flats for poorer people
- Two storied terraced houses with a small garden at the back were built near the Pompeian amphitheatre
- In Herculaneum a flimsy jerrybuilt house was found made from a wooden skeleton of square frames filled with stones and mortar
Shops (Tabernae)
The main commercial thoroughfare in Pompeii was the road that ran from the Forum, past the amphitheatre to the Sarnian Gate. Remains of the shops on this road can be identified by the wide opening onto the street and the long groove in the stone threshold where a wooden shutter slid back during the day. Many had a back room or mezzanine for the owner to live.
About 200 eating and drinking places have been identified in Pompeii. Some were simply fast food snack bars and are recognised by the marble-covered counter which held large doila, holding hot drinks and dishes (thermopolia). In most of these places food was taken away or eaten standing up.
Wine bars and taverns (cauponae) were scattered throughout both towns, but in Pompeii they were more densely clustered near the entrance gates and the amphitheatre. Some had a room or rooms at the back with benches for clients. In other there were couches for wealthier clients to recline on while earing or drinking. It seems that many Pompeians were heavy drinkers.
2.3H Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
2.3I Religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.
Temples
- Considered homes for the gods and goddesses and consisted of a cella (chamber) to contain the statue of the deity, which stood before an alter.
- Most temples in Pompeii came from the Roman period of occupation and were dedicated to public cults, enabling people to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome. There was little focus on personal religious devotion.
- Main temples in Pompeii
- Temple of Jupiter (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva)
- Temple of Vespasian (Centre of the imperial cult in Pompeii)
- Sanctuary of the Public Lares
- Temple of Venus (Venus Pompeiana, patron goddess of Pompeii)
- Temple of Fortuna Augusta (Emperor and goddess of abundance, Fortuna)
- Temple of Apollo (Patron deity of the city)
- Temple of Jupiter Melichios (Possibly Roman version of Zeus Melichios, god of farmers and agriculture)
- Temple of Isis (Egyptian goddess Isis)
Household gods
- Domestic hearth/fireplace was the centre of the household where the paterfamilias celebrated the religious practices connected with the family and household.
- Vesta (goddess of the hearth) was worshipped alongside:
- The Lares – Household deities that protected the family. They had their own shrine in a cupboard. Dropped food from meals were
offered to them
- The genius – God of the male line of decent. Celebrated on the birthday of the paterfamilias. Represented as a snake
- The penates – Gods of the larder (food store). Statuettes placed on table at meals.
- Every home had a lararium (shrine) in the atrium for daily worship.
Foreign Cults
- Excavations have proven to find a society in which foreign deities and practices are tolerated
- Personal focus with the promise of an afterlife
- Cult of Isis was popular in Pompeii (SEE ISIS NOTES)
- Another popular foreign cult was the cult of Bacchus (SEE BACCHUS NOTES)
- Evidence of Hindu goddesses (statuettes in House of the Four Styles)
- Trade links and foreign visitors often brought their faith with them
- Small evidence to suggest Judaism was practiced among a few in Pompeii (Names such as Mary and Matha, Jewish names, inscribed on walls)
- Evidence of Christians is restricted to a faded inscription of the word ‘Christian’ and an impression of a cross on a wall in Herculaneum (possibly a cross-shaped bracket)
Cult of Isis
- Egyptian influence was strong in Pompeii in the religious sphere, possibly because of trade contact between Naples and Alexandria
- The cult was open to men and had priests, however one third of worshippers mentioned in inscriptions were female
- It soon spread among the elite with some such as Julia Felix incorporating shrines, paintings and statuettes of the goddess in their
gardens
- Two daily services in the temple, though it was open all day, uncommon for most sanctuaries
- High quality wall paintings feature Egyptian style landscape, exotic beasts, scenes of Egyptian and Greek mythology and priests
performing their duties give evidence of these daily services
- Initiates, priests and priestesses wore white linen robes, sandals of papyrus and headbands featuring the Egyptian cobra
- Ceremonies involved the burning of incense, chanting and music
- Before sunrise --> worshippers gather in front of the temple and pray until the sun rises to an image of the goddess
- At 2:30pm --> water from the Nile was consecrated and sprinkled by a priest as a symbol of life
- Two major annual festivals
(Navigation of Isis – 5th of March – Praying for all sailors over a boat purified at the seashore)
(Isa – between 13th and 16th of November – Commemoration of discovery of Osiris’ body. This is believed to be when secret initiation
took place where initiates experienced rebirth)
- The paintings, decorations and furniture found in the Temple of Isis in Pompeii, and that is was one of the first buildings to be restored
after the earthquake of 62 AD, point to the significance of the cult
Cult of Bacchus
- Centred on the Greek god Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility
- Swept through Greece in the 6th century and became enormously popular in southern Italy some 300 years on
- Offered an escape from worldly reality into mystic communication with the god and a promise of a blessed life after death
- Originally it was a female cult and was only attended 3 days of the year, a Campanian priestess changed this by admitting men and
extending the celebration of the rites to five times a month
- Thought by the Roman Senate, due to its secrecy, to be a threat to the public order and provided opportunity for conspiracy
Tombs
- Main source of information about death and burial practices, alongside inscriptions
- In Pompeii the cemetery is located outside the city walls
- Not yet excavated in Herculaneum
- Most tombs outside Pompeii are Roman, though some Samnite burials have been found
- Rich and poor often had tombs quite close to each other, given the varying styles of tombs in the cemeteries
- Inscriptions gave name, rank, information about their life, public works and activities
- Inscriptions are unreliable as they reflect how the tomb owner wanted to be remembered rather than an accurate representation of them
- Few children or slaves are represented
- Considered homes for the gods and goddesses and consisted of a cella (chamber) to contain the statue of the deity, which stood before an alter.
- Most temples in Pompeii came from the Roman period of occupation and were dedicated to public cults, enabling people to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome. There was little focus on personal religious devotion.
- Main temples in Pompeii
- Temple of Jupiter (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva)
- Temple of Vespasian (Centre of the imperial cult in Pompeii)
- Sanctuary of the Public Lares
- Temple of Venus (Venus Pompeiana, patron goddess of Pompeii)
- Temple of Fortuna Augusta (Emperor and goddess of abundance, Fortuna)
- Temple of Apollo (Patron deity of the city)
- Temple of Jupiter Melichios (Possibly Roman version of Zeus Melichios, god of farmers and agriculture)
- Temple of Isis (Egyptian goddess Isis)
Household gods
- Domestic hearth/fireplace was the centre of the household where the paterfamilias celebrated the religious practices connected with the family and household.
- Vesta (goddess of the hearth) was worshipped alongside:
- The Lares – Household deities that protected the family. They had their own shrine in a cupboard. Dropped food from meals were
offered to them
- The genius – God of the male line of decent. Celebrated on the birthday of the paterfamilias. Represented as a snake
- The penates – Gods of the larder (food store). Statuettes placed on table at meals.
- Every home had a lararium (shrine) in the atrium for daily worship.
Foreign Cults
- Excavations have proven to find a society in which foreign deities and practices are tolerated
- Personal focus with the promise of an afterlife
- Cult of Isis was popular in Pompeii (SEE ISIS NOTES)
- Another popular foreign cult was the cult of Bacchus (SEE BACCHUS NOTES)
- Evidence of Hindu goddesses (statuettes in House of the Four Styles)
- Trade links and foreign visitors often brought their faith with them
- Small evidence to suggest Judaism was practiced among a few in Pompeii (Names such as Mary and Matha, Jewish names, inscribed on walls)
- Evidence of Christians is restricted to a faded inscription of the word ‘Christian’ and an impression of a cross on a wall in Herculaneum (possibly a cross-shaped bracket)
Cult of Isis
- Egyptian influence was strong in Pompeii in the religious sphere, possibly because of trade contact between Naples and Alexandria
- The cult was open to men and had priests, however one third of worshippers mentioned in inscriptions were female
- It soon spread among the elite with some such as Julia Felix incorporating shrines, paintings and statuettes of the goddess in their
gardens
- Two daily services in the temple, though it was open all day, uncommon for most sanctuaries
- High quality wall paintings feature Egyptian style landscape, exotic beasts, scenes of Egyptian and Greek mythology and priests
performing their duties give evidence of these daily services
- Initiates, priests and priestesses wore white linen robes, sandals of papyrus and headbands featuring the Egyptian cobra
- Ceremonies involved the burning of incense, chanting and music
- Before sunrise --> worshippers gather in front of the temple and pray until the sun rises to an image of the goddess
- At 2:30pm --> water from the Nile was consecrated and sprinkled by a priest as a symbol of life
- Two major annual festivals
(Navigation of Isis – 5th of March – Praying for all sailors over a boat purified at the seashore)
(Isa – between 13th and 16th of November – Commemoration of discovery of Osiris’ body. This is believed to be when secret initiation
took place where initiates experienced rebirth)
- The paintings, decorations and furniture found in the Temple of Isis in Pompeii, and that is was one of the first buildings to be restored
after the earthquake of 62 AD, point to the significance of the cult
Cult of Bacchus
- Centred on the Greek god Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility
- Swept through Greece in the 6th century and became enormously popular in southern Italy some 300 years on
- Offered an escape from worldly reality into mystic communication with the god and a promise of a blessed life after death
- Originally it was a female cult and was only attended 3 days of the year, a Campanian priestess changed this by admitting men and
extending the celebration of the rites to five times a month
- Thought by the Roman Senate, due to its secrecy, to be a threat to the public order and provided opportunity for conspiracy
Tombs
- Main source of information about death and burial practices, alongside inscriptions
- In Pompeii the cemetery is located outside the city walls
- Not yet excavated in Herculaneum
- Most tombs outside Pompeii are Roman, though some Samnite burials have been found
- Rich and poor often had tombs quite close to each other, given the varying styles of tombs in the cemeteries
- Inscriptions gave name, rank, information about their life, public works and activities
- Inscriptions are unreliable as they reflect how the tomb owner wanted to be remembered rather than an accurate representation of them
- Few children or slaves are represented