1. Historical Context
1.1 Geography, topography and resources of Egypt and its neighbours
Geography
- Located on the north east coast of Africa
- Bordered Libya, Nubia, Sinai and the Mediterranean sea
- Long narrow trough 3-8km wide cut into desert cliffs.
Topography
- Most important feature was the Nile.
- Forms south of Egypt from the union of the two rivers the Blue Nile and the White Nile.
- Narrow fertile strip of land on each side of the Nile was referred to as the Black Land.
- The Red Land was the unproductive desert and rocky cliffs that bordered both sides.
- The three seasons were:
– The inundation – flood June to September, workers provided labour for the pharaoh’s building programs.
– Emergence of the Fields – October to February, water was receding and soil was moist.
– Drought – March to June, when crops were harvested and threshed.
Resources
- Self-sufficient in most natural resources.
- Main crops – wheat + barley provided staple diet – bread, beer.
- Vegetables – leeks, onions, cucumbers, melons, lettuces, and beans.
- Fruits – figs, dates and grapes.
- Also castor and olive oil, herbs, honey.
- Animals – pigs, sheep, goats, cattle and asses, geese, ducks, wild fowl, fish.
- Flax for linen, ramie and hemp for flax like qualities, woollen fabrics.
- Mud bricks made from Nile mud and straw.
- Limestone, sandstone for building.
- Semi - precious stones – agate, amethyst, jasper and turquoise. Metals – copper, gold.
- Also salts - Natron
- Located on the north east coast of Africa
- Bordered Libya, Nubia, Sinai and the Mediterranean sea
- Long narrow trough 3-8km wide cut into desert cliffs.
Topography
- Most important feature was the Nile.
- Forms south of Egypt from the union of the two rivers the Blue Nile and the White Nile.
- Narrow fertile strip of land on each side of the Nile was referred to as the Black Land.
- The Red Land was the unproductive desert and rocky cliffs that bordered both sides.
- The three seasons were:
– The inundation – flood June to September, workers provided labour for the pharaoh’s building programs.
– Emergence of the Fields – October to February, water was receding and soil was moist.
– Drought – March to June, when crops were harvested and threshed.
Resources
- Self-sufficient in most natural resources.
- Main crops – wheat + barley provided staple diet – bread, beer.
- Vegetables – leeks, onions, cucumbers, melons, lettuces, and beans.
- Fruits – figs, dates and grapes.
- Also castor and olive oil, herbs, honey.
- Animals – pigs, sheep, goats, cattle and asses, geese, ducks, wild fowl, fish.
- Flax for linen, ramie and hemp for flax like qualities, woollen fabrics.
- Mud bricks made from Nile mud and straw.
- Limestone, sandstone for building.
- Semi - precious stones – agate, amethyst, jasper and turquoise. Metals – copper, gold.
- Also salts - Natron
1.2 Historical Overview of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Late 18th Dynasty commenced with the reign of Amenhotep III. There were two distinct phases: The Amarna period and the post-Amarna period. During the reign of Amenhotep III, Egypt reached its height of power and prosperity, leading historians to describe it as a ‘Golden Age.’ There was a decline in Egypt’s fortunes, however, towards the end of the dynasty.
Other notable features included:
– Relative peace in the region with an emphasis on diplomacy and negotiation of treaties
– A booming economy and unprecedented architectural and artistic achievement
– Religious ‘revolution’ followed by a return to orthodoxy
– An increased political role for queens
– The rise of Hittites as Egypt’s foremost enemy
Other notable features included:
– Relative peace in the region with an emphasis on diplomacy and negotiation of treaties
– A booming economy and unprecedented architectural and artistic achievement
– Religious ‘revolution’ followed by a return to orthodoxy
– An increased political role for queens
– The rise of Hittites as Egypt’s foremost enemy
1.3 Overview of the social, political, military and economic structures of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Social structures
– Increased number of foreigners residing permanently in Egypt
– Establishment of ‘foreign quarters’ in major cities e.g Memphis
– Increased number of foreign princesses and concubines in royal harem e.g Mitannian, Babylonian, Syrian
– Introduction of foreign gods and establishment of priesthoods, e.g Baal, Astarte
– Incorporation of foreign elements into Egyptian names e.g Baal-Khepeshef
Political structures
– Increased number of co-regencies e.g Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, Akhenaten and Smenkhkare
– More prominent role played by queens in government, e.g Mutemweya, Tiye, Nefertiti
– Foreign policy based on diplomacy, political marriages and negotiation of alliances rather than constant campaigning (wars and invasions)
– Increased use of diplomatic correspondence to maintain links with foreign rulers e.g the Amarna Letters
– Relocation of capital from Thebes to Memphis and Akhetaten
– Increased practice of appointing administrative officials from the army and from outside Thebes
– Introduction of measures to curb corruption among officials, e.g code of conduct for judiciary, tours of inspection, severe punishments
Military structures
– Increased number of foreigners in Egyptian army e.g chariot-drivers from
Near East; Libyans and Nubians in royal bodyguard
– More prominent role played by the military in government
– Prominent of military officers to throne e.g Ay, Horemheb
Economic structures
– State building program became focus of economy
– Increased wealth from trade and tribute
– Increased demand for foreign labor and resources
– Increased employment opportunities for artists and craftsmen
– Increased number of foreigners residing permanently in Egypt
– Establishment of ‘foreign quarters’ in major cities e.g Memphis
– Increased number of foreign princesses and concubines in royal harem e.g Mitannian, Babylonian, Syrian
– Introduction of foreign gods and establishment of priesthoods, e.g Baal, Astarte
– Incorporation of foreign elements into Egyptian names e.g Baal-Khepeshef
Political structures
– Increased number of co-regencies e.g Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, Akhenaten and Smenkhkare
– More prominent role played by queens in government, e.g Mutemweya, Tiye, Nefertiti
– Foreign policy based on diplomacy, political marriages and negotiation of alliances rather than constant campaigning (wars and invasions)
– Increased use of diplomatic correspondence to maintain links with foreign rulers e.g the Amarna Letters
– Relocation of capital from Thebes to Memphis and Akhetaten
– Increased practice of appointing administrative officials from the army and from outside Thebes
– Introduction of measures to curb corruption among officials, e.g code of conduct for judiciary, tours of inspection, severe punishments
Military structures
– Increased number of foreigners in Egyptian army e.g chariot-drivers from
Near East; Libyans and Nubians in royal bodyguard
– More prominent role played by the military in government
– Prominent of military officers to throne e.g Ay, Horemheb
Economic structures
– State building program became focus of economy
– Increased wealth from trade and tribute
– Increased demand for foreign labor and resources
– Increased employment opportunities for artists and craftsmen
1.4 Role of Amun and Amun priesthood
- Religion and politics were closely linked
- They had a strong hold presence in Thebes suggested by Samson
- They had tremendous power wealth
- The cult of Amun in 18th dynasty enjoyed the pre-eminent position of state cult
- Booty was dedicated to Amun in his temples especially at Karnak
- The priesthood of Amun, as the custodians of the cult, shared the glory and wealth of the king
- They had a strong hold presence in Thebes suggested by Samson
- They had tremendous power wealth
- The cult of Amun in 18th dynasty enjoyed the pre-eminent position of state cult
- Booty was dedicated to Amun in his temples especially at Karnak
- The priesthood of Amun, as the custodians of the cult, shared the glory and wealth of the king
1.5 Roles of the king and relationship to the gods, especially Amun
At all times in Egyptian history, the king was closely associated with the gods. During the early New Kingdom he was associated with the god Amun. Under the Theban rulers of 18th Dynasty, Amun became the most powerful god in Egypt and his temple at Karnak became the centre of the national cult.
Amun’s chief attributes were:
– God of air
– Creator of mankind
– Known as ‘The Hidden One’
– Referred to by the title ‘King of the Gods and Lord of the thrones of the two lands’
– Depicted as a man in a short kilt with a headdress of tall ostrich feathers or as a ram with horns curved downwards
– Associated with the goose as a sacred animal
– Associated with the sun-god Re as Amun-Re
A strong relationship with Amun had important political implications for the kings of this period. It could be used to:
– Reinforce or legitimize their position
– Justify political decisions made
– Influence the pattern of succession
– Ensure continuing support for their reign
Most kings chose to demonstrate their close relationship with Amun in the following ways: – By claiming to be his son or daughter
– By claiming to have been personally selected by him to rule Egypt
– By attributing all policy decisions and achievements to him
Amun’s chief attributes were:
– God of air
– Creator of mankind
– Known as ‘The Hidden One’
– Referred to by the title ‘King of the Gods and Lord of the thrones of the two lands’
– Depicted as a man in a short kilt with a headdress of tall ostrich feathers or as a ram with horns curved downwards
– Associated with the goose as a sacred animal
– Associated with the sun-god Re as Amun-Re
A strong relationship with Amun had important political implications for the kings of this period. It could be used to:
– Reinforce or legitimize their position
– Justify political decisions made
– Influence the pattern of succession
– Ensure continuing support for their reign
Most kings chose to demonstrate their close relationship with Amun in the following ways: – By claiming to be his son or daughter
– By claiming to have been personally selected by him to rule Egypt
– By attributing all policy decisions and achievements to him
1.6 Overview of Religious Beliefs, cults and practices of the Eighteenth Dynasty
- Osiris was the chief God prior to Akhenaten’s reign
- The rich were guaranteed after life if the individual did good deeds and lived a life that the Amun Religion see suitable
- There were many other Gods and Deities associated with the Amun religion, whereas the Aten religion was composed only of one God – the Aten, Osirian beliefs were abandoned, burial customs were changed and citizens could not solely pray to the sun god Aten, only through Akhenaten could they pray to this God
- The rich were guaranteed after life if the individual did good deeds and lived a life that the Amun Religion see suitable
- There were many other Gods and Deities associated with the Amun religion, whereas the Aten religion was composed only of one God – the Aten, Osirian beliefs were abandoned, burial customs were changed and citizens could not solely pray to the sun god Aten, only through Akhenaten could they pray to this God